.■■■■■ ' . -; . ■ * , . • ■ 

OUR COUNTRY 




class jEjt_^6 



Book. 






(kpightSi 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




I'hutu by Hurriu i Swing 



"THE HEART OE THE NATION' 



OUR COUNTRY 



AND 



ITS RESOURCES 



WHAT WE OUGHT TO KNOW ABOUT AGRICULTURE -FISHERIES 
FORESTS PANAMA CANAL- RAILROADS MANUFACTURES 
AUTOMOBILES - INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS - THE 
NEW NAVY-THE ARMY-OUR MONEY-AERO- 
NAUTICS-MOTION PICTURES-THE 
WEATHER - ASTRONOMY - THE 
NATIONS CAPITAL-THE 
PRESIDENT-CONGRESS 
ALL ABOUT THE 
GOVERNMENT 



BY 

ALBERT A. HOPKINS 

Member of the American Statistical Association 
Editor of the Scientific American Reference Book 
Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas, etc. 



With 8(10 Illustrations 



SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SERIES 



NEW YORK 
M U N N & CO., INC. 

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE 
1917 



Copyright 1916 by Munn & Co., Inc. 



This book is protected by ninety copyrights 
and all persons are warned against any 

use of text or illustrative material. 



The righl of translation into all languagef 
Including the Scandinavian, is reserved. 

Printed in the United states of America. 



CEC 27 1916 



Composition, I'resswork and Electrotyping by 

M aiv.owan & Slipper. 30 Beekrrmn St 
New York, N. v., V. S A. 



'CI. A 4 5:j:;--' I 



PREFACE 

THE "Wave of Prosperity" which has raised our coun- 
try to an unparalleled position need not ever recede 
if we take measure of our resources and their development 
at the present time and act wisely upon the information 
obtained. It is the object of this modest volume to present 
such facts as can be obtained from official sources, in a 
readable and withal likable form, so that we may have a 
more wholesome respect for what Uncle Sam is doing for 
us. The "Stars and Stripes" are protected by Acts of 
Congress and State laws; the American Eagle cannot be 
kept in captivity (except in a zoological garden), but the 
power of the law has never been invoked to protect that 
symbol of our Federal Government — "Uncle Sam." This 
kindly old gentleman with his fuzzy beaver hat, his striped 
trousers and his parti-colored coat of the period of 1830, 
is used dozens of times daily in cartoons, but always in a 
respectful sense as we use it here — as a symbol of national 
esteem. 

There is no more fascinating story in the world than 
how we are governed by means of often invisible threads 
that seem to begin nowhere, but always end somewhere 
to our profit and often pleasure. Who shall tell this 
wonderful story of achievement? How five blades of 
grass are made to grow where two should be found; how 
fish that have been left high and dry on land after a flood 
are put back in water to prevent "air drowning;" how 
forests are conserved at a profit; how reclamation makes 
the desert smile; how national parks can be run for both 
profit and pleasure; how good roads decrease the cost of 
living; how the three great Government Surveys carry on 
their ceaseless work to exploit our resources, or chart the 
fairways of commerce; how the Coast Guard is always on 
the lookout to protect life and property at sea; how the 
Patent Office has succeeded in making us a nation of 



inventors and quadrupling our national wealth; how 
commercial and industrial preparedness have changed the 
gears on the car of industrial progress— all these and many 
more remain to he told. Who shall tell the story? Win 
not "let Uncle Sam do it" ? He is patient, kind, amiahle, 
and exceedingly accurate in his information. 

This is what has heen done here. Uncle Sam tells his 
complex story in his own way with the pen of high 
Government officials — cabinet officers, heads of the great 
governmental manufacturing plants and bureaus under 
C Government auspices, down the list until all of the 
Government activities are accounted for. Unfortunately, 
the names cannot always be published, owing to depart- 
mental regulations, but enough names have been printed 
throughout the book to stamp this as a very authentic, 
and make it practically a semi-official guide to Govern- 
ment activities. In the section known as "Uncle Sam's 
Autobiography" every chapter has been submitted to 
either the Secretary of the Department, or to some 
responsible officer for revision. This has required an 
almost endless correspondence, but the Editor has the 
satisfaction of knowing that the information is as nearly 
right as it is possible to get it. 

Besides Government officials, named and unnamed, 
special thanks are due to Mr. C. F. Talman, Librarian of 
the U. S. Weather Bureau; Dr. F. L. Hoffman, Statis- 
tician of the Prudential Insurance Company; Dr. Richard 
Rathbun of the Smithsonian Institution; Mr. Louis 
Annin Ames, an authority on flags, and a number of 
others who have given their kind assistance. Adequate 
pictorial treatment heightens the interest of this fascinat- 
ing subject, and the whole country has been canvassed for 
interesting pictures; thus, for the chapter on Agriculture, 
over 35,000 photographs were examined to select the 
significant ones. 

It is hoped that this book will be a real contribution 
to literature on true preparedness — preparedness for the 
arts oi peace, as well as the arts of war. 



Y////?////////////////M^^^ 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Part Om 



UNCLE SAM'S ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS 



I Geographical Discovery 

II. Population : : 

III. Agriculture : : 

IV. The Fish We Eat : 
V. Forests and Forestry 

VI Reclamation Service 

VII. Our National Parks 

VIII. Good Roads and Bad 

IX- The Panama Canal 

X. The Three Great Government Surveys 

XI. Government Protection of Life and Property at Sea 

XII. Railroads of the United States : : : 

XIII- The Postal Service : : : 

XIV. Our Natural Resources and How They are Developed 

XV. The Mineral Industry of the United States : 

XVI. The Patent Office and Inventions Since 1845 

XVII. Manufactures : : : : : 

XVIII. The Automobile Industry : : : 

XIX. The Recent Development of American Commerce 

XX. Commercial and Industrial Preparedness 

XXI. Education : 

XXII. The New Navy 

XXIII. The Army : 

XXIV. Uncle Sam's Money 

Part I. The Treasury : 

Part II. Bureau of Engraving and Printing 
Part III. The Assay Office : : : 
Part IV. How Coins are Minted : 



1 

19 

37 

67 

75 

87 

95 

103 

109 

119 

135 

147 

161 

173 

177 

199 

211 

223 

231 

245 

255 

263 

281 

293 
299 
309 
313 











CHAPTER 

XXV. 
XXVI. 



How Uncle Sam Protects His Revenue 
Uncle Sam's Non-Contiguous Possessions 



321 

327 



Part Two 
OF HUMAN INTEREST TO ALL UNCLE SAM'S PEOPLE 



I. 

II. 
III. 
IV. 

V. 
VI. 



I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XI i. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 



The American Flag : : 

Aeronautics : : : : 
Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony 
Motion Pictures in the Making 
The Realm of the Air : : 

The Heavens Above : : 



Part Three 
UNCLE SAM'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY 



Washington — The Nation's City 

The Legislative Halls : 

The President — The Executive 

The Cabinet : : : 

Department of State : 

Department of the Treasury 

Department of War 

Department of Justice 

Post Office Department 

Department of the Navy 

Department of the Interior 

Department of Agriculture 

Department of Commerce 

Department of Labor : 

The Smithsonian Institution 

Miscellaneous Activities of the Government 

Pan American Union : 



347 
363 
383 
399 
411 
423 



447 
455 
465 
477 
479 
493 
507 
521 
525 
'526 
539 
547 
561 
572 
575 
582 
591 







>fcr-= 



' A* 



v 



\V^ 



.- 



J 



^ 



^/ 



WHAT UNCLE SAM'S "0, K." LOOKS LIKE. 



^Illlllllllllllllllllllllll|]||l!lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll!llllll[||||ll!|llll||||l|l||ll||l|l|||||||l|||l|||||ll!ll!lll!ll|l llllllllllll|ll|lll!l|ll|||l|lll||lll!lllllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllll!IIIIIIIIIKIII!lllllllllllliH 




Copyright by United Newspapers, London: Underw 1 & Underwood, X. Y. 

ONE OF THE MEMBERS OF THE AMUNDSEN SOUTH POLE EXPEDITION STANDING 

AT THE POLE 
Taken by Captain Amundsen Himself 




Copyright by Underw I & Underw l 

CAPT. ROALD AMUNDSEN, WHO DIS- 
COVERED THE SOUTH POLE ON 
DECEMBER H. 1911. 



Copyright by Underw I & Underw 1 

CAPT. SCOTT. WHO ALSO FOUND THE 
SOUTH POLE AFTER AMUNDSEN. ON 
JANUARY 18, 1912, AND PERISHED. 



Part I. 

UNCLE SAM'S ACTIVITIES AND 
INTERESTS 

CHAPTER I. 

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 

By CYRUS C. ADAMS 



THE greatest era of geograph- 
ical discovery dawned when 
Christopher Columbus, with 
three small vessels, carrying 88 men. 
sailed into the Unknown from Palos, 
Spain, on August 3, 1492. The sig- 
nificance of this voyage was not 
only that it brought to light the 
Western World, but that it also dis- 
closed the sea as the great highway 
of men by which they soon learned 
to reach all the vast islands (con- 
tinents) and the lesser islands of the 
globe. Europe, for example, had a 
very misty idea of China and India 
till sea routes placed her in touch 
with thein. Sea routes hugged the 
coasts of Europe and Africa for 
thousands of miles : but Columbus 
added cross sea sailing to the coast 
routes and thus brought in the day 
of worldwide exploration. 

The Vikings of Norway in the 
ninth-tenth centuries A. D. had dis- 
covered Iceland, Greenland and the 
northeast coast of North America : 
but these daring sea rovers wore 
far from European centers : and as 
it was thought that Greenland was 
a part of Europe, their work was not 
at all appreciated, and. in fact, was 
very little known. 
Columbus's four voyages, 1492- 



1503, brought to light the larger and 
many of the smaller islands of the 
West Indies. He saw South America 
from the island of Trinidad and 
noted the freshness of the Gulf of 
Paria's waters which come from the 
Orinoco. He skirted the eastern 
shores of Central America from 
Guanaja Island, around Cape Gra- 
cias a l>ios. paused at Belen on the 
Isthmus of Panama, thence on to 
Puerto Bello, the most southern 
point he reached. His field of dis- 
covery embraced the area between 
about 9 to 24 degrees North Latitude 
and 60 to 87 degrees West Longitude. 
At St. Ann's Bay, on the north coast 
of Jamaica, he ended his great 
work about thirteen years after he 
began it. 

Immediate effects of his achieve- 
ment were apparent. Ten days less 
than a year after Columbus started 
on his third voyage to America, 
Vasco da Gama, after rounding the 
Cape of Good Hope, landed at Cali- 
cut, the first European navigator to 
reach India. This was the begin- 
ning of the great sea-trade between 
Europe and the East Indies. 

Thirteen years and .". months after 
Columbus died. Magellan started on 
his journey around the world (1519- 



Copyright by Mini-.' & Co., Inc. 



PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERS 



21), was the first tu pass through 
the Straits of Magellan, gave to the 
Pacific the flattering name it hears 
and his expedition circumnavigated 
the world though its leader perished 
in the Philippines. Among the other 
most notable circumnavigations were 
those of Sir Francis Drake (1577- 
SO), during which he sailed along 
the Pacific coast of America from 
Magellan Straits nearly to Puget 
Sound, seeking in vain for a water- 
way into the Atlantic; Admiral Spil- 
berg, who led a small Dutch fleet 
around the world (1614-17), inci- 
dentally defeating a Spanish fleet off 
Chile; and Captain James Cook, 
whose memorable voyages (1768-79) 
placed him first among British mari- 
time discoverers. 

It was early in the 16th century 
that Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian 
adventurer, claimed that he had 
made four voyages to America, 
though not as the commander of any 
expedition. The dates he gave were 
1497, 1499, 1501 and 1503. From the 
time that his writings were criti- 
cally examined by Alexander von 
Humboldt, the prevalent opinion has 
been that he had no part whatever 
in the first discovery of continental 
America. Professor Martin Wald- 
seemiiller of Lorraine unfortunately 
gave full credence to Vespucci's 
claims, wrote a book in 1507 in 
which he said the newly discovered 
continent should be called America 
because "Americus discovered it." 
and published the first map on which 
the name America appeared. It was 
the blunder of a scholar that at- 
tached the name America instead of 
"Columbia" to the Western World. 
When John Cabot reached the 
northeastern coast of North America 
(1497) and landed on Cape Breton 
Island at the entrance to the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence, he believed he had 
reached the eastern shores of Asia. 
He returned home to announce the 
news and, the following year, went 
back to follow the whole coast and 
locate Japan in the south. This 
journey extended from Greenland 



in .ii'ly as far south as the latitudi 
Philadelphia, but as bo found no 
suns of civilization and his supplies 
were running short, he returned to 
England. 

V. Y. 1'inson. who was helpful to 
Columbus on his first voyage, dis- 
covered in 1500 the estuary of the 
Amazon, the largest river in the 
world. This was about 17 years after 
Diego Cam found the mouth of the 
Congo, the second greatest river. 
About this time the idea began to 
weaken that the short's which ex- 
plorers had been visiting were coasts 
of Asia. The population was too 
scanty and none of it was civilized; 
hut still, no explorer was instructed 
to find what these new lands were 
worth and how they might be util- 
ized. The main idea, for a long 
time, was to hunt for waterways 
through the new lands by which the 
spices of the East Indies and other 
coveted Asian commodities might be 
brought to the Atlantic countries of 
Europe without doubling the Cape 
of Good Hope. 

It was while hunting for such a 
passage, and by reason of stress of 
weather, that Pedro Alvarez Cabral. 
in 1500, sighted the coast of Brazil. 
and took possession of it in the 
name of Portugal. In a half cen- 
tury, the whole Brazilian coast was 
studded with Portuguese settle- 
ments. The policy of appropriation 
and development was under, way. 
The avowed regime of the Portu- 
guese was to win new lands, if pos- 
sible, by preaching the Gospel to 
the natives; if this failed, to sub- 
jugate them by the sword. 

The romantic episode in coastal 
discovery was the voyage of Ponce 
de Leon, of Spain, in 1512, author- 
ized by his government to search 
for and settle the fabulous island of 
"Bimini." on which was reputed to 
be a wonderful fountain that re- 
newed the youth and strength of old 
men who bathed in it. He failed to 
find the fountain of youth, hut his 
toil was not in vain, for he skirted 
a long cast covered with flowers 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUE 



and li«' therefore called t ho land 
Florida and said he believed it was 

a great island. 

in 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa 
heard from an Indian chief that, 
south of the isthmus of Panama, 
was another greal ocean. Climbing 
to the summit of the Isthmian 
range, Balboa saw the Pacific; and 
arriving at the shore on September 
29, lie proclaimed the "Great South 
Sea" to be a possession of the Span- 
ish king, lie was planning to under- 
take the conquesl of the Peruvians 
for the Spanish crown when the 
jealous governor of the Darien col- 
ony put him to death on a trumped 

up Charge of disloyalty. The fate 
of Balboa, one of the ahlest men 
in the Spanish service, was a pa- 
thetic incident in the early history 

of American discovery. 
Those data briefly summarize the 

leading events in discovery and 
early exploration along the eastern 
coasts of the Americas. Then fol- 
lowed the era of the penetration of 
the lands i I6th-19th centuries). In 
North America, the gigantic task of 
studying the vast interior to the 
north of the Kio Grande was the 
work mainly of English and French 
explorers ami European immigrants 
who followed in their wake. But 
many Spanish enterprises took root 
in the present Texas. New Mexico, 
Arizona and California. The Spanish 
<»\ er ran the whole of ( Vntral and 
South America, excepting Brazil, 
seeking gold rather than orderly ex- 
ploration and economic development. 
imposing upon the natives also the 
most cruel subjugation. Bui this 
eager quest for treasure so prodded 
exploratory zeal that South America 
was better known and mapped than 
North America towards the end of 
the lsih c< atury. 

In 1516, De Soils discovered and 
ascended the Liver Plata and was 
killed by Indians at the delta i<\' the 

Parana, near where Buenos Aires 
stands. In 1519 21, while Magellan 
was sailing around the world. Cor- 
tez. a milltarj genius and a monster 



of cruelty, conquered Mexico and ex- 
plored the Peninsula of Lower Cal- 
ifornia. Among the great geograph- 
ical results of the advancing Spanish 

conquesl was the descent of the 
Amazon River from the Amies to the 
Atlantic by Orellana. In one of 
his wars witli Indians, women 
fought beside the men of their tribe, 
which originated the name Amazons 
applied to female warriors. Wliile 
the main river has been known for 
.".on years from the Andes to the 
sea. much of its basin between the 
main tributaries of the trunk stream 
still awaits detailed study. 

The incentive to North American 
exploration was long the desire to 
find a northwest waterway leading 
to the Pacific. Jacques Carrier 
(1536) discovered the St. Lawrence 
River and ascended it to tl i 
of Montreal. He saw the Ottawa 
from the top of Mount Royal, which 
gave Montreal its name. Cham- 
plain (1603-17), the greatest of 
Canadian explorers, founded the 
town of Quebec, traced the St. 
Lawrence to its source in Lake On- 
tario ami reached Lake Huron. 1 te 
was hoping all the time to find a 
waterway to China. Henry Hudson 
i 1609) sailed into New York Bay 
and up the Hudson River to the 
site of Albany before he decided 
that the route would not lead to the 
Pacific. While on the same quest 
in Hudson Lay (1610), he and some 
of his men were set adrift by mut- 
inous comrades and were not heard 
of again. 

About 1660 the exploration of the 
continental interior without thought 
of reaching the Orient, became more 
prominent, it has often required a 
number of explorers to establish a 
geographical fact. Thus French ex- 
plorers, chiefly missionaries, as Joli- 
et and Marquette, revealed the Mis- 
sissippi between its atllueiits. the 
Wisconsin and the Arkansas, within 
TOO miles of the Gulf of Mexico 
i L660 7:: i. Lather Hennepin ( 1680) 
traced the upper Mississippi between 
the mouth of the Illinois River and 



PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 



the site of Minneapolis. Its lower 
course had been followed by Ferdi- 
nand de Soto (1541). De Soto has 
often been called the discoverer of 
the Mississippi, but f he river was 
first sighted by Alonzo de Pineda in 
1519. Its extreme sources and upper 
course were discovered and studied 
by later explorers, chiefly School- 
craft (1S32), Nicollet (1S36), and 
Brower (1889). 

The exploration of the Great 
Lakes- was distributed over many 
years. The pioneers who chopped 
their way through the forests from 
the Atlantic to the Mississippi, or 
opened farms in spite of Indian foes. 
in Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio, 
the trappers and hunters spread 
over the western plains, the gold 
diggers who rushed to California, all 
added immensely to early knowledge 
of the United States. 

In regions that have had from 
early time, comparatively dense pop- 
ulation and rapid growth in civi- 
lization, we hear little of such re- 
search as that, for example, which 
has gridironed Africa with explor- 
ers' routes. Communities, such as 
Greece, Rome, China and Japan, as 
they grew in intellectual power, be- 
came intense students of their own 
habitat : and their armies, invading 
less fortunate lands, were the chief 
instrument of pioneer discovery. No 
large events in exploration have 
been possible in Europe within the 
Columbian era. Among the most 
important discoveries in Asia have 
been these : Deshnev rounded the 
East Cape (Cape Deshnev) in 1645. 
and thus made known the most east- 
ern extension of the continent. Rus- 
sia began the scientific exploration 
of Siberia in 1725 and, in the next 
twenty years, the northern coasts 
were fairly well determined and a 
foundation was laid for the detailed 
study of the land surface, fauna 
flora and inhabitants. P.ering (172.~i 
41) showed the relation between the 
northeast coast of Asia and the 
northwest coast of America. In the 
past fifty years, the great plains and 



forests have been studied, the Lena, 
Yenesei and Ob, three of the largest 
rivers in the world, have been ex- 
plored and the Yenesei and Ob have 
irregular steamship connections 
with European ports. One result 
of the study of Siberia is that over 
20,000,000 acres are now under the 
plow. 

Tibet, so long a terra incognito. 
has been largely revealed, chiefly 
since 1863, by many explorers. The 
Himalayas have long been in pro- 
cess of detailed study by the Indian 
Survey, and India has been min- 
utely mapped. 

Australia was probably first seen 
about 1540 by French sailors, but 
it was early in the next century that 
the Dutch brought the first authen- 
tic accounts of parts of the west 
coast. Capt. James Cook's voyage 
(1769-70), when he surveyed the 
whole east coast, made the first great 
contribution to knowledge of the 
continent. Inland exploration did 
not begin till the early part of the 
19th century. Attempts to pene- 
trate the dry or desert regions of 
the interior with horses involved a 
number of tragedies, including the 
disappearance of the second Leich- 
ardt expedition (1847). Leichardt 
sel out to cross the continent from 
east to west and was never heard 
from after he entered the desert. 
Xot even in polar lands was explora- 
tion so hazardous as in Australia 
till the camel was introduced about 
1865; then exploration advanced 
more rapidly and Australia is now 
known in all its chief configurations 
and conditions. 

The attempt to reveal the whole of 
Africa did not begin till Dr. David 
Livingstone (1841-73) completed his 
great work. The exploration of the 
continent was greatly retarded by 
the difficulties of getting into it, 
owing to the lack of indentations. 
the high coasts, rivers reaching the 
sea by cataracts and rapids, the un- 
favorable climate and a host of hos- 
tile native tribes. The modern era 
of African exploration began when 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




ROCKY MTft 

:gart 
19,539 Greenwich 0* Meridian! 

Hudson P. A Tl.A S'T/C OCEA N 



"UV«-W 



FATHOMS 



ROCKY MTS. 
Fremont Pk. Vi* 

PACIFIC OCEAN . _ ^a Scoiia^rt/tAT/C OttM.V 




AW. Indies 




SEA LEVEL {f^ 



3.000. 
FATHOMS 

20.000 



SEA LEvElIJ 



THE^NDES 
L Titicaca^t Ml. Sorata 
21.490 

Mis. of Brazil 
•AN iBk^_ — — *^^*- ATLANTIC OCEAS 

S AMERICA 





Greenwich 0° Meridian"! 



Along Different Parallels of Latitude Round the Globe 

Vertical Scale Exaggerated 260 Times 

PROFILE OF LAND AND SEA 



PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 



Greenwich 0° Meridian 

Hardanger Bering- 

Field itic S«« Ural Mts. Etanovoi Mts. . &0 



4.000 FATHOMS 

T20.000 

FEET 



0° SEA LEVEt 




15' SEA LEVEL 



"Greenwich 0° Meridian 



Along Different Parallels of Latitude Round the Globe 

Horizontal Scalo 1:150,000,000 

PROFILE OF LAND AND SEA 



8 



OIK COUNTRY AMi ITS RESOURCES 



Mungo Park made his journeys in 
the basin of the Niger River (lT'.i.".- 
1806). During the next forty years, 
a few explorers crossed the Sahara 

and studied the western and central 
Sudan: and finally I>r. Livingstone 
gave thirty years of his life to many 
journeys of exploration in south 
central Africa. Be did not live to 
see the great effect of his work; but 
soon after his deatli ilsT.'Si the 
greatest exploratory movement ever 
seen began in Africa. Scores of ex- 
peditions carried on held studies that 
finally extended over nearly all of 
Africa south of the Sahara : and sev- 
en European nations Great Britain, 
France. Belgium, Germany, Italy, 
Spain and Portugal — were finally in 
possession of the whole of Africa 
excepting Abyssinia and Liberia. 
Intensive studies of the various Col- 
onies began in the last years of the 
19th century and continued till the 
war of 1914, when the entire work 
of development practically ceased. 
Africa, the last continent to be 
largely explored, has thus made far 
greater progress, in the short period 
of a generation, than any of its sis- 
ter continents when they were in the 
same low stage of development. 

Polar exploration began with the 
development of the whaling and 
fishing industries and the hunt for 
walrus, seal. etc.. in the cold regions. 
Nearly hs.immi Greenland whales 
were killed in Spitzbergen waters 
in a little over a century, beginning 
in 1G70. The search for the North- 
west Passage to Asia also led into 

the Antic as. for example, Davis's 
voyage up Baffin Bay. Then the 
(piest for the North Pole engaged 
expeditions for many years; and 
finally, not a few parties were 
specially equipped to seek for facts 
about polar phenomena. Thus many 
polar lands have been discovered, 
depths of the polar seas have been 
ascertained in wide areas, the Arctic 
natives have been studied and the 
art of living and traveling in the 
frigid /.ones has been far advanced. 
The Investigation of the position of 



the north and south magnetic poles 
appears to show that they are not 
lixed points but move in areas of 
considerable extent. The attainment 
of the geographical North Pole was 
made by Peary on April 6. 1909; 
and of the South Pole by Amund- 
sen on December 14. 1911. and by 
Scott on January Is. 1912. 

The most notable discovery in 
many years is the fact that a high 
continent surrounds the Smith Pole. 
The area of the land surface is ap- 
proximately 5,460,000 square miles. 
or nearly one and a half times the 




Copyright l>y Harris A Owing 

REAR ADMIRAL PEARY. DISCOVERER 
0E THE NORTH POLE 



size of Europe. It is computed that 
Its mean height is 6,500 feet, or 
nearlj seven times the mean eleva- 
tion of Europe. 

The greal world sea has been so 
well explored that probably few isl- 
ands have escaped attention except, 

it may be, in the polar areas 



PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 



11 



THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY 



Date 



b. c. 

1400-1250 

? 1350 

1000 

750 

700 
600 
500 

500 

500 

470 

330 

330 
339-323 

290 

218 

about 120 

61 58 

since 30 



20 
15 

A. D. 

84 

150 
518-21 
671-95 

861 

865 

876 

985 
? 1000 



1154 

about 1200 
1253 

1271-95 

1290 
1325-52 



1327 
1415-GO 

1419-20 

1442 
? 1460 
1474 

1485 
1487 

1492-98 
1497-98 



1498 



Explorer and Nationality 



Egyptians 

Greeks 

Phoenicians 

Greeks 

Samians 

Phoenicians 

Himilco (Carthag.) .... 

Anaximander (of Mil- / 

etus) \ 

Hecataeus (of Miletus).. 

Hanno (Carthag.) 

Pytheas of Massilia. . . . 
Nearchus (Macedon.). . 
Alexander the Great. • . . 

Egyptians 

Carthaginian 

Eudoxus of Cyzicus. 

Romans 

Romans 

Strabo (Greek) 

Romans 

Romans 

Claudius Ptolemy 

(Egypt.) ( 

Hoei-sing (Chinese) 

1-tsing (Chinese) 

Norsemen 

Naddod (Norse) 

Gunnbjorn (Norse) .... 

Erik the Red (Norse) . . 

Lyef Eiikson (son of 1 

Erik the Red) / 

Edrisi (Sicily) 

Arabs 

Ruysbroek 

Marco Polo (Venet.) . . 

Genoese 

Ibn Batuta (Arab.) . . . 



Sir John Mandeville I 

(Eng.) / 

Prince Henry (Port.).. 



J. Gonzales and Mar- 
tin Vaz (Port.) .... 
Nuno Tristao (Port.) 
Ointra and Costa (Port. ) 
Toscanelli (Ital.) .... 

Diego Cam (Port.). . 
Bartholomew Diaz 

(Port.) I 

Columbus (( ten. > . . . . 
John ('abut (Anglo- 

Ven.) 

Vasco da Gama (Port . i 



Discovery or Exploration 



Invasions of Habesh, Arabia. Phoenicia, Syria. 

Argonautic expedition to Colchis. 

Voyages to Ophir, Gades, Britain. 

Extension of Colonies in the Mediterranean and 

Pontus Euxinus. 
Spain (Tartessus) discovered for the Greeks. 
Circumnavigation of Africa by order of Necho. 
Atlantic coasts of Europe. Sargasso Sea. Said 

to have visited Britain. 

Makes the first maps. 
Writes the first geography. 
West Africa as far as Cape Palmas. 
? Thule, North Sea, Scandinavia. 
Sails from the Indus to Red Sea. 
Expedition to Iran, Turan, and India. 
Navigate the East coast of Africa. 
Hannibal crosses the Alps. 
Attempts circumnavigation of Africa. 
Julius Ca?sar in Gaul, Germany, and Britain. 
Extension of geographical knowledge and com- 
merce as far as Central Asia. 

Describes Roman Empire and first mentioned 

Thule and Ireland. 
Tiberius discovers the Lake of Constance; 

Drusus, the Brenner Pass. 
Agricola circumnavigates Britain. 

Constructs his Geography and Atlas. 

Visits Pamirs and Punjab. 

Visits Java, Sumatra, and India. 

Faroe Islands. North Cape of Europe rounded. 

I discovers Iceland. Visited by Irish monk's about 
795. 

Greenland coast. Rediscovered by Erik the Red 
(983). 

Colonizes Greenland. 

Discovers Newfoundland (Helluland), Nova Sco- 
tia (Markland), and coast of New England 
(Vinland) [?]. 

Geographer to King of Sicily, produces his geog- 
raphy. 

Trading merchants discover Siberia. 

Reaches Karakorum, the ancient seat of the 
Mongol Empire. 

Travels in Central Asia, China, India, Persia. 

Canaries, Azores, etc. 

Travels through the whole Mohammedan World, 
N. Africa, E. Africa, S. Russia, Arabia, India 
and China. 



? Travels in India. 

Gives an impetus to Portuguese voyages of dis- 
covery. 

Pono Santo and Madeira discovered. 

Cape Verde, etc. 

Coast of Guinea reached. 

Sends Columbus his map showing the western 

route to Cathay (China). 
Mouth of the Congo reached. 

Hounds Cape of Good Hope 

America, West Indies. Trinidad Cuba, etc. 

Sails along E. coast of America from Labrador as 

far as Florida. 
Route to India by ('ape of Good Hope, 




TASMANIA STRAITS BRITISH 

SETTLEMENTS HONDURAS 



JAMAICA 
GAMBIA ASHANTI 



BRITISH FIJI ISLANDS SOLOMON BRITISH SIERRA LEONE GOLD 

NEW GUINEA ISLANDS NORTH BORNEC COAST 



Great Britain and its Possessions. 



UNITED STATES 




PHILIPPINE IS. 



ALASKA O* Hawaiian I; 



DUTCH 



4 



HOLLAND 




DUTCH GUIANA 

i 




DUTCH EAST INDIES 



FRENCH 



WEST INDIES 




PORTUGUESE 



I 



PORTUGAL 



JGl 

INK 



PORTUGUESE 
GUINEA 



^j^ Azores TIM <>R 

^■fl ^^^ Madeira ^H 



ANGOLA LAND 



GOA Cape Verde Is. 



PORTUGUESE 
EAST AFR1C-. 



GERMAN POSSESSIONS 
Prior to the Great War 




>£ 



> 



GERMANY KAISER WILHELM 

LAND 



T 



GERMAN 
S W. AFRICA 



IK 




GERMAN 
EAST AFRICA 



TOGO LAND 



Samoa Is. -S 1 

KIAO-CHAU 



*h KD 



CAMEROONS 



NEW CALEDONIA 



4L 6 K *J 

W^^_ FRENCH *^m 

^^^ SOMALILAND i BY 

FR. 1NDO-CHINA FR. GUIANA MADAGASCAR 



Other Countries and their Possessions. 



14 



01 k COtJNTRT and ns RESOURCES 



TIIK PROGRESS OB DISCOVER! Continued 



I >ate 



1499 

1500 

1500 

1502 
1512 

151 3 
1513 



1516 

1517 

1519-21 

1519-21 



1534 

1535 

1535-42 

1539 

about 1540 
1541 

1542 
1542 



1542 

1553 

1576 

1577-SO 



1587 

1594-97 

L595 

I i,i if. 
1606 

Kills 

1610 

11.11 17 
L616 
1616 

1616 

11. IS 

L642 
1643 
1645 

1660 

1673 

17L'.-» 13 
L728aud'41 

1764-66 



Explorer and Nationality 



Amerigo Vespucci (Ital. I 



Pinzon, V. Y. (Span.)- • 

•laspar Corte Real \ 

(Port.) / 

Alvarez Cabral (Port.). 

Columbus (Gen.) 

Ponce df I. run (Span. 

Portuguese 

Balboa (Span, i 

De Solis (Span.) 

Sebastian Cabot (Eng.) 

Corte/. Span. I 

Magellan span, i 

Pizarro (Span.} 

Diego d'AlmagrotSpan. 
Jacques Cartier (Fr. ). 

Francesco de Ulloa 
(Span.) 

French 

Pizarro and Orellana I 
(Span.) ; 

Antonio de Mota 

Kuy Lopez de Villa- 1 
lobos (Span.) / 

Pinto (Port.) 

SirH.Wlll0ugb.b3 Eng 
Frobisher (Eng.) .... 
sir I . Drake (Eng.) . . 

J. Davis (Eng.) 

Barents I Dm.) 

Mendafia span 
Quiroa I span 

Torres 1 span. 1 

< liamplain t French) . 
H. Eudson i 
Spilbergen I Dm. 

\v. Baffin 1 Eng l 

LeMaire and Schou- \ 

ten I Dui 

1 mi, Hartog 1 Dm - 
<;. Thompson (Eng. 

merchant. 1 

Abel Tasman 1 Dut.) . 

Vries < Dm. 1 

Deshnev (< iossacb 1 , 

French 

Marquette and Joliel 

Fi 

Russians 

Bering iDan.i ami 

Tishirikov ilius.i, . 

Byron (Eng.) 



Discovery or Exploration 



Claimed to have discovered Venezuela (which 
Columbus had already seen from the island of 
Trinidad). His testimony as to his three al- 
leged voyages is regarded as untrustworthy. 

Discovered month of R. Amazon and Cape St. 

Roque. 
Reaches entrance of Hudson strait, called by him 

strait of Anian. Rediscovered Greenland. 
Brazil (named by him Ilha da Vera Cruz, being 

S. part of Bahia Stat. 
Central America on his fourth voyage. 
Florida. 
Reach the Moluccas. 

< losses I st hums of Panama and discovers Pacific 

1 icean. 

Reaches La Plata. 

Hudson Strait. 

( 'onqliest of Mexico. 

First 10 circumnavigate the globe. Passes 
through the strait of Magellan, crosses the 
Pacific, and discovers the Philippines. 

Completes the Conquest of Peru. 
Conquers Chili. 

Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ascends river to Hoche- 
laga (Montreal). 

Explores Gulf of California. 
Continent of Australia seen by French sailors. 
Amazon River. 
First reaches .Japan. 

Discovers Pelew Islands, and takes possession of 
Philippine Islands for Spain. 

V isii s Japan. 

\o\ aya Zemlia. 

Labrador and Baffin Land. 

Second circumnavigation of the globe, and first 
saw Cape Horn. Explored W. coast of N. 
America nearly as far as Vancouver Archi- 
pelago. 

I >a\ is Strait. 

Spit/.bergen. Bear Islands, etc. 

I )jsc(i\ ers Marquesas islands. 

Tahiti (Sagittaria) and other south Sea Islands. 

Torres Strait. Dutch reach Australia. 

I >isCO\ ers Lake < >ntario. 

Hudson Bay and discoveries in N. America. 

< !ircumna\ igal ion of the globe. 
Enters Baffin Bay. 

Round Cape Horn. 

West coast of Australia. 

Sails up Gambia. 

Van Diemen's Pan. I Tasmania) and New Zealand. 

Explores E. coast Japan, Saghalien, ami K mile Is. 

Rounds Last Cape or Asia fiom the Kolyma to the 

Anadyr. 
Lake region of tin- 9t. Lawrence discovered. 

Exploration of the Mississippi from the north. 
Explorat ion of the coasts of Siberia. 
Bering strait ami the \\\". coast of America, 
Circumna\ igation of the globe. 



PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 



15 



THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY — Continued 



Date 



Explorer and Nationality 



Discovery or Exploration 



176S-79 



1770 
1770 
1785-SS 
1789 
1792 



1795-1806 
1799-1858 

1801-1804 
1803-6 

1805-9 
1807-8 

1S19 

1819 

1825 

1819 
1819 

1819-20 
1821 
1823 
1823 

1823 
1825-26 
1827-8 

1829 

1830-32 
1830 
1831 
1832 

1833-35 
1835 

1837 
1837-40 

IS39 
1839-40 



1839-40 

1840 

1841 
1841-73 
1844-48 

1845 

1848 

1849-55 

1850 
1852-4,1861 

1855-59 
1863-65 

1858 

1858 



Capt. Cook (Eng.) . 



James Bruce (Scot.) . . 
Liakhov (Russian) 
La Perouse (French) . . 
A. Mackenzie (Scot.).. 
Vancouver (Eng.) . . . . 



Mungo Park (Scot.) . 
Alex, von Humboldt 1 

(Ger.) J 

Flinders (Eng.) 

Krusenstern (Rus.) 



Salt (Eng.) 

Klaproth (Ger.) 

Sir E. Parry (Eng.). . . 

Sir J. Franklin 

Richardson and Back 

(Eng.) 

Long (U. S.) 

Wm. Smith (Eng.).... 



Bellingshausen 

Capt. King 

Wrangel (Rus.) 

Denham and Clap- 

perton (Eng.) 

James Weddell (Brit.). 
A. G. Laing (Scot.) . . . 
Rene Caillie (French) . 

Sturt (Eng.) 



Biscoe (Eng.) . 



Sir J. C. Ross (Eng.) 
Laird and Oldfield \ 

(Scot.) J 

Sir G. Back (Eng.) . . 
Sir M. R. Schomburgk 

(Ger.) 

Wood (Eng.) 

John d'Urville (French) 

J. Balleny (Eng.) 

Eyre (Eng.) 



Lieut. Charles Wilkes 

(U. S.) 

Triimmer 

Sir James C. Ross(Eng.) 
D. Livingstone (Scot.). 
Leichhardt (Ger.) .... 



Sir. Tohn Franklin (Eng.) 
Rebmannand Krapf ( Ger 
Richardson and Barth 

(Eng.-Ger.) 

Sir R. M'Clure (Irish). 
Sir C. R. Markham 

(Eng.) 

Du Chaillu (French) . 
Sir R. Burton (Scot.).. 
Speke and Grant (Brit.) 



Voyages round the world. Hydrographical sur- 
veys of the Society Islands, Sandwich Islands, 
E. coast of Australia, Cook Strait in New Zea- 
land, Antarctic Ocean, N.W. coast of America, 
etc. 

Sources of the Blue Nile. 

Discovers New Siberian Islands. 

North of Japan. Saghalien, etc. 

Exploration of the Mackenzie River. 

Vancouver Island circumnavigated. Discovered 
by Perez, 1774. Exploration of NW. coast of 
America. 

Journeys and explorations in the Niger district. 

Explorations in South America and publication 
of " Kosmos." 

Southern coasts of Australia. 

Surveys in Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsch, 
Saghalien, etc. 

Visit to Abyssinia. 

Exploration of the Caucasus. 

Parry Archipelago. 

Coppermine and .Mackenzie Rivers explored. 

Exploration of Rocky Mountains. 
South Orkney Islands and South Shetlands. Vis- 
ited by Weddell in 1822. 
Discovered new Antarctic Islands. 
Explorations in Western Australia. 
Discovers Wrangel Island. 

Lake Chad. 

Explored Weddell Sea. 

Reached Timbuktu from Tripoli. 

Journey from Kakundi to Timbuktu and Mo- 
rocco. 

Descends the Murrumbidgee and discovers the 
Murray River. 

Enderby Land and Graham Land. 

Royal Geographical Society founded in London. 

Magnetic North Pole. 

Exploration of the Niger and Benue. 
Great Fish River, Canada. 
Explorations in Guiana. 
Discovered a source of the Oxus. 
Adelie Land. Reached 66° 30' S. lat. 
Balleny Islands, 66° 44' S. lat. 
Discovers Lake Torrens, S. Australia, and in 184 l 
journeys from Adelaide to King George's Sound. 

Discovery of the Antarctic Continent. 
Remains of ancient Nineveh. 

Victoria Land, with volcanoes Erebus and Terror. 
Thirty years' travel in Central South Africa. 
Crosses Australia, Moreton Bay to Port Essin.'?- 

ton. 
Sails on his last vbyage never to return. 
Mt. Kilima Njaro. Sighted Mt. Kenia. 

Western Sudan and Sahara. 
Northwest Passage. 
Explorations in Peru. 

Basin of Ogowe River, W. Africa. 
Lake Tanganyika. 
Victoria Nyaqza, 



10 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 
THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY— Continued 



Date 



Explorer and Nationality 



Discovery or Exploration 



I860 

1861 

1862 

1862-63 

1864 

1864-66 

1867-72 

l.sti.x- 7 1 

1869 

1870-1886 
1872 

1872-76 

1872-76 

1873 
1874-75 

1876 
1876-90 

1876 



1877-78 

1878-79 
1878-89 

1878-85 

1878-92 

1879 

1879 
1881-82 

ISM s.-, 

1 SS5 

1885 

ISSti |<)( Ml 

1887 

1887 

L888 L900 

1890-02 

is'. 12 
1893 96 

1897 
1893 97 
L895-96 
1896 98 

1897 

1897 
1898 99 

1899 i'» "I 

1899 L903 

1895 r.'i ii i 



Sir S. Baker (Eng.). 



Burke and Wills 

M'Douali Stuart (Scot. 
W. G. Palgrave I Eng. | 
A. E. Nordenskiold 

Swedish i 

G. Rohlfs «ier. ) 



Richthofen < ler.) . . . . 
G. Schweinfurth i< ler. 

(i. Xachtigal (Ger.). • • 



Prejevalsky (Rus.) 
Payer and Weyprecht 

(Austrian) 

"Challenger" Expedi- 
tion (Brit.) 

Ernest Giles 

\\ arburton (Irish). . . . 

Lieut. Cameron (Eng.) 

De Breeze (French). . . 

H. M. Stanley (Eng.). 

Sir Geo. Xares and 
A. H. Markham 
(Eng.) 

Doughtv and Blunt 
(Brit.) 

Nordenskjold (Swed. i 

Thomson (Scot.) 



Major Serpa Pinto 

(Port.) 

Emin Pasha (Ger.) . . . 



Moustier and Zweifel 

(Swiss) 

Lieut. Schwatka (U. S. 

Leigh Smith 

Greely (U. S 

Wissmann (Ger.) 

Junker iRus.-< ier. ) . . . 
Peary (l\ S.) 



Capt. Younghusband 

(Eng.) 

Hans Meyer i( ier. 

I'. I'otireati (French 
Col. P. F. Mantel] 

(French) 

Baron Toll (Russ.) 

Nansen I Norw.) 



Jackson Scot.) 
Sven lb-din 9wed. 
Pr. Henri d < >i leans 
( !ap1 . Marchand . 

\ndree (Swed.) . . 



I) ( larnegie 

De < Serlacne i Belgian 

Donaldson Smith 

(U. S.) 

Capt. Otto s\ erdrup 

Swedish) 

Major < ribbons 



Explores Upper Nile. Discovers Albert Xvanza. 
1864. 

Crossed Australia. 

< Jrossed Australia. 

Journeys in Central and Eastern Arabia. 

Spitzbergen. 

Journeys in W. Sudan by Ghadames, Murzuk, 

and Wadai to R. Niger. 
Extensive travel and exploration in China. 
Exploration of the Jur. Niam-Xiam, and Mon- 

buttu countries in Africa. 
Explorations in Lake Chad region and Central 

Sudan States. 
Journeys in Mongolia. Tibet, etc. 

Discovered Franz Josef Land. 

Explores the depths of the oceans. 

Traverses Northwest Australia. 

Crosses Western Australia from East to West 

< losses Equatorial Africa. 

Explorations in the Ogowe* and Gabun region. 
Congo Basin ; Mt. Ruwenzori; Forests on the Aru- 
wimi, etc. 

Grant Land. Penetrated as far X. as S3° 20'. 

Explorations in Northern Arabia. 

Northeast passage 

Journeys through Masai Land. British South 
Africa, Sokoto, Morocco, etc. 

Twice crosses Africa. 

Travels and Surveys in Equatorial Africa. Dis- 
covery of Semliki River, etc. 

Sources of the Xiger. 
Recovered 1'ranklin relics. 
Explored S. coast of Fran/. Josef Land, 
(irinnell Land and X\V. coast of Greenland. 
Across Africa from West coast. Congo Basin. 
Welle-Mobangi, etc. 

Six expeditions of exploration and North Pole at- 
tained on April 6, 1909. 

Travels from Pekin to Kashmir. 
Exploration of Mount Kilimanjaro. 
Explorations in the Sahara. 

Researches in the Sudan and Sahara. 

Exploral ions in t he Lena R. 

11\ iolenland. etc.: reached his "Farthest North" 

in lat. 86 13' 6" N. 
Surveys and explorations in Fran/. Josef Land. 
Explorations in North Central Asia. 
Travels in Tonkin and ( hina. 
Travels from I pper Mobangi to Fashoda. 

A I tempt tO Cross Over the North Pole in a balloon, 

w ii h fatal results. 
Crosses Western Australia from S. to N. 
"Belgica,' firs! ship to winter within Antarctic 

circle. 

Explorations in Vbyssinia and Brit. E. Vfrica. 
Found new islands W. of Parry Islands. 
Explorations in Congo and Zambezi headwaters. 



PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 



17 



THE PROGRESS OF I)IS( '( (VERY- Continued 



Date 



Explorer and Nationality 



Discovery or Exploration 



1900 

1900 

1900-02 

1902-04 

1901-04 

1902-03 

1903-04 

1904 and 

1908-10 

1906 

1906-08 
1908-09 
1910-11 
1910-12 

1911-12 

1913 

1906-07 
1909-12 

1912 

1913 

1913 

1913-14 

1915 



Borchgrevink (Brit. Ex.) 
Duke of Abruzzi (Ital.) 
Sven Hedin (Swed.).. . . 
Anglo-Fr. and Anglo- 1 

Ger. Comms J 

Com. R. P. Scott (Brit.) 

Prof. E. von Drygal- \ 

ski (Ger.) J 

Dr. W. S. Bruce (Brit.). 
Dr. J. B. Charcot j 

\ (French) 

Duke of the Abruzzi 

(Ital.) 

Sven Hedin (Swedish) 
Lieut. Shackleton (Brit.) 

Amundsen (Nor.) 

Capt. R. F. Scott(Brit.) 

Filchner (Ger.) 

Stefansson (Can.) 

Mylius Erichsen 

Einar Mikkelsen 

Knud Rasmussen 

J. P. Koch 

Capt. B. A. Vilkitski.. . 

Capt. Vilkitski 

Sir Ernest Shackleton . . 



Reached lat. 78° 50' S. via "Victoria Land. 
Reached lat. 86° 33' N. via Franz Josef Land. 
Explorations in Tibet. 

Surveys and discoveries in Bornu and Kamerun. 
Explorations in Ross Sea and interior of Antarctic 
Continent. 

Discovered Gaussberg on Antarctic Continent. 
Discovery of Coats Land in Weddell Sea. 
Explorations along Graham Land Coast and W. 
of it. 

First ascent of Mt. Ruwenzori. 

Tibet. Discovered main source of Brahmaputra. 

Sledge journey towards the South Pole. 

Reached South Pole, Dec. 14, 1911. 

Reached South Pole, Jan. 18, 1912 and perished 
on return journey. 

Discovered Prince Regent Leopold Land, Jan., 
1912, on Antarctic Continent, Weddell Sea. 

Discovered new land N. W. of Prince Patrick 
Island, Parry .'slands. 

Completed maps of Greenland Coasts. 

Explorations in Greenland Sea and East Green- 
land. 

Crossed North Greenland. 

Crossed Middle Greenland. 

Discovered Nicholas II Land in the Arctic. 

Made the second Northeast Passage. 

Discovered Caird Coast of the Antarctic Con- 
tinent. 




Copyright United Newspapers; Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 
LOOKING DOWN ON THE ANTARCTIC PLATEAU 




Copyrighl BdwiD Leviek 

"IT SHINES FOR ALL" 

How the Statue of Liberty appears to the Alien. (Thia is aol m photograph of the 

liyht itself, but a picture of the sun, taken at 6 r. M., from i\ Bteamahip.) 



CHAPTER II. 



POPULATION 



THE Thirteenth Census of the 
United States was taken by 
the Bureau of the Census as 
of April 15, 1910. The total area 
of enumeration included the United 
States, the territories of Alaska and 
Hawaii and Porto Rico. The enu- 
meration also included persons sta- 
tioned abroad in the military and 
naval service of the Government. 



the outlying possessions of the Unit 
ed States. Including the population 
of the Philippines and other posses- 
sions, the total population living 
under the American flag is approxi- 
mately as given below. 

It has been estimated by the 
United States Census Bureau that 
the population of the United States 
and possessions on July 1, 1914, 



POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 



Territory Enumerated: 1910 



United States (with outlying possessions) 

United States, exclusive of outlying possessions 
Outlying possessions 

Alaska 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Military and naval service abroad 



Gross area 

(land and 

water) in 

square miles 



3,627,557 



3,026, 7S9 
600,768 



5<>O.SN-t 
6,449 
3,435 



Population 



93,402,151 



91,972,266 
1,429,885 



64,356 

191,90 > 

1,118,012 

55.608 



The population returned for the 
total area of enumeration was 93,- 
402.151, an increase, from 1900 to 
1910, of 20.9 per cent for the total 
area of enumeration and "Jl per cent 
for the United States, exclusive of 
outlying possessions. 

It should be noted that the area 
of enumeration does not cover all 



was 109,021,992, and that the popu- 
lation of the United States on July 
1, 1915, was 100,399,318. 



At the close of the First Census, 
in l?.t(). the United States comprised 
substantially the territory between 
the Atlantic Ocean and the Missis- 



TOTAL POPULATION UNDEK THE AMEKICAN FLAG, 1910 

Population of the United States and possessions 

Enumerated at the census of 1910 

Philippine Islands, 1903 

Guam, estimated 

Samoa, estimated 

Panama Canal Zone, estimated 



101.100,100 



93 



,402,151 
,635, 126 

! 

6 100 
50,000 



Copyright by M'um & Co., Inc. 



OCR COIN TKV AM) ITS RESOURCES 



sippi River except Florida, repre- 
senting a gross area (land and wa- 
ter surface) of 892,135 square miles. 

The United states, with its outlying 
possessions, now comprises a gross 
area of 3.743,30c. square miles, or 
more than four times the area in 
1790. The successive accessions of 
territory w«re as given below. 

DENSITY OF POPULATION 

According to the census of 1910, 
there were in the United States, on 
the average, 30.9 inhabitants to each 



Alaska had an average density of 
only o.l per square mile; Hawaii. 
29.8; and Porto Rico, 325.5, or 

greater than that of any State of 
the United States except Rhode 
Island. Massachusetts and New 
Jersey. 

( ENTEB OF POPULATION 

The center of population is often 
understood to be the point of inter- 
section of a north and south line 
which divides the population equal- 
ly, with an east and west line which 



Accession 


Gross area 

in square 

miles 


Accession 


< rross area 

in square 

miles 




3.026,789 


. Hitlving possessions 

Alaska, 1867 

Philippine Islands, 1899 

Porto Rico 1899 


716,517 








Area of V. S. in 1790* 

Florida. 1819. . 


892,135 

827,987 
58,666 

13,435 
389.166 
286,541 
529,189 

29,670 


590.884 

6,449 

115,026 


Territory gained through treaty 

with Spain, 1819 

Texas 1845 


8,435 


Guam, 1899 

Samoa, 1900 


210 
77 


Oregon. 1846. . . . 


Panama Canal Zone, 1904 


436 


Mexican Cession, 1848 

Gadsden Purchase, 1853 





^Includes the drainage basin of the Red River of the North, not a part of any acquisi- 
tion, but previously considered a part of the Louisiana Purchase. 



square mile of land area. The rela- 
tive density of population of each 
State of the United States in 1910 
is best exhibited by the map on 
page L'2. 

Aside from the District of Colum- 
bia there were ten States in which 
there was in 1910 a population per 
square mile of more than ion. as 
follows: Rhode Island. 508.5 inhabi- 
tants per square mile; Massachu- 
setts, 418.8; New Jersey, .'!.".7.7; 
Connecticut, 231.3; New York. 
101.2; Pennsylvania. 171.0; Mary- 
land, i:in.::: Ohio. U7.0; Delaware, 
103.0; Illinois, 100.6. There were 
10 States which had. on the average, 
less than 18 inhabitants to the 
Square mile. Nevada, with 0.7 per- 
son per square mile, or 7 persons 
to 10 square miles, had the lowest 
density. 

Among tin' outlying possessions 



likewise divides it equally. This 

point of intersection is, in a certain 
sense, a center of population: it is, 
however, designated by the Rureau 
of the Census as the median point 
to distinguish it from the point tech- 
nically denned as the center. 

The character of these two points 
may be made clear through a physi- 
cal analogy. If the surface of the 
United States be considered as a 
rigid plane without weight capable 
of sustaining the population distri- 
buted thereon, individuals being as 
sumed to be of equal weight, and 
each, therefore, to exert a pressure 
on any supporting pivotal point di- 
rectly proportional to his distance 
from the point, the pivotal point on 
which the plane balances would, of 
course, be it- center of gravity : and 
this is the point referred to by the 
term "center of population." In de- 



POPULATION 



21 




COMPARATIVE AREA OF THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES 




UNITED STATES, ORIGINAL AREA AND ACQUISITIONS OF TERRITORY, 

1790 TO 1910 



22 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE, BY STATES 



termining the median point, distance 
is qoI taken into account, and the 
location of the units of population 
Is considered only in relation to the 
Intersecting median lines — as being 
north <>r south of the median paral- 
lel and east and west of the median 
meridian. Extensive changes in the 
geographic distribution of the popu- 
lation may take place without affect- 
ing the median point, whereas the 
center of population responds In the 
slightest population change in any 
section "f the country. 

I I.NTEK OF POPULATION 

At the time of the First Census, 
the center of population was 23 
miles east of Baltimore, Maryland, 
since wlii h time it has moved stead- 
ily westward. In 1800 j, NV as IS 

miles west of Baltimore; in L810, 
10 miles northwest by west from 
Washington, I ». C; in 1820, it; miles 

north of \v Istock, Va.; in L830, 

p.t miles west-southwest of m •.•- 

field, AY. Va. : in 1840, 16 miles south 
of Clarksburg, W. Va.; in 1850, 23 
miles southwest <>f Parkersburg, W. 
Va. : in I860, 20 miles south of ciiil- 
licothc. ( ». ; in 1870, I s miles east 



by north of Cincinnati, O. : in 1880, 
8 miles west by south of Cincinnati, 
O. ; in 1890, 20 miles east of Colum- 
bus, Ind.J in 1900, (i miles southeast 
of Columbus, Ind., and finally, in 
1910, in the city of Bloomington, 
Ind. During the 120 years between 
the First and Thirteenth Census, the 
center of population has moved over 
550 miles westward, or in other 
words, from west latitude 76 degrees 
11 minutes 12 seconds to west lati- 
tude s6 degrees 'A2 minutes 20 sec- 
onds. 

MEDIAN POINT 

As in the case of the center of 
population, the median point has also 
oeen moving westward, but not quite 
so rapidly. The exact location of 
the median point in L880 was 16 
miles nearly due west of Spring- 
field, < >. ; in 1890, 5 miles southwest 
of Greenville, <>. ; in 1900, in Spar- 
tanburg, Ind.. and finally, in 1910, 
'A miles south of Winchester, Ind. 

l RB \N \Mi RTJBAl rol'l l \TION 

The Census Bureau classifies as 
urban population that residing in 

Cities and other incorporated places 
of 2,500 Inhabitants or more, includ- 



24 



OUR COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES 



ing New England towns of that 
size. All other population is con- 
sidered as rural. 

In 1880, of a total population in 
the United States of 50,155,783, 
there were in municipalities 14,772,- 
438, or 29.5 per cent of the popu- 
lation. In 1890, this element had 
grown to 22.72U.22."'., or 36.1 per cent 
of the total population; in 1900, it 
was 30,797,185, or 40.5 per cent ; and 
in 1910, 42,623,383, or 46.3 per cent 
of the total population of the United 
Slates. 

Prom 1900 to 1910 the rate of in- 
crease for the population of urban 
areas was over three times that for 
the population living in rural ter- 
ritory, the rates of increase being 
34.8 and 11.2 per cent respectively. 

There were 14 States in 1910 in 
which more than half the population 
was living in territory classed as 
urban. The greatest per cent urban 
in any State was Rhode Island, 
which had 96.7 per cent, while North 
Dakota, with 11 per cent, had the 
smallest proportion of its people 
in urban communities. 

There was in every State between 
1900 and 1910 an increase in urban 



population, but in six States — New 
Hampshire. Vermont, Ohio, Indiana, 
Iowa and Missouri — there was a de- 
crease in rural population. In all 
but two States — Montana and Wyo- 
ming — the urban population in- 
creased faster than the rural popu- 
lation, and generally at a much more 
rapid rate. 

COLOR OR RACE, NATIVITY AND 
PARENTAGE 

Of the population ot the United 

States in 1910, 81,731,957. or ss.'.i 
per cent, were whites; i».si:7.763, or 
10.7 per cent, were negroes; and 
412,546, or four-tenths of one per 
cent, were other colored races, in- 
cluding Indians. Chinese. Japanese. 
Hindus, Koreans, and others. 

Of the total population. 7s,4~>6,380. 
or 85.3 per cent, were native and 
13,515,886, or 14.7 per cent, foreign 
born, the latter consisting chiefly 
of whites. 

The native white population num- 
bered 6S.3s6.41 2. and constituted 
83.7 per cent of the white popula- 
tion and 74.4 per cent of the total 
population of the country. The 13,- 
345,545 foreign-born whites consti- 




NUMBER OF FAMILIES PER SQUARE MILE 



26 



OVR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



tuted 1 (;.."'» per cent of the white 
population and 14.5 per cent of the 
total population. 

Native whites of native paren- 
tage in 1910 numbered 49,488,575, 
constituting 60.5 per cent of the 
white population and 53.8 per cent 
of the total population. Native 
whites of foreign parentage formed 
15.8 per cent of the white popula- 
tion and those of mixed parentage 
7.:; per cent, the corresponding per- 
centages based on the total popula- 
tion being 11 and i<~>, respectively. 



crease of the white population. The 
native white population increased 
20.8 per cent and the foreign-born 
white 30.7 per cent. The increase 
of Degrees and Indians, since their 
cumbers is only slightly affected by 
immigration, or emigration, is essen- 
tially a natural increase. 

BLACK AND MULATTO POPULATION 

Of the 9,827,763 negroes enumer- 
ated in L910, 7.777.077 were returned 
as black and 2,050,686 as mulatto, 
or 20.9 per cent. In 1850 the per- 




I I Lro thin 1 per cenl, 
m 110 5 pcrctD . 
V777* b to 12J per Cent. 

ESS 121 t<>25 J- r cent. 

(ffiB 25 tO 17) IKTCCtlt. 

HZ 37) to 40 per cent. 

■D) SO pcf txnt and 

Tb« heavy line* {—) show Rfographic divisions. 



PER CENT OF NEGROES IN TOTAL POPULATION, BY STATES 



Of the total increase of 15,977,691 
in the population of the country be- 
tween 1900 and 1910, the whites con- 
tributed 14,922,761, the negroes 993,- 
769, and other races 61,161. The 
Increase in the native population 
was 12,803,081, and thai in the for- 
eign born, 3,17 1,610, or aboul one- 
fifth of the lotal increase. 

The percentage of increase for the 

whites. •_"_'.::. was a little less than 

twice as high as that for the negroes, 

11.2. This difference is partly due. 
however, to the direct or indirect 

effect of Immigration upon the in 



centage of mulattoes was 11. 2. it 
had advanced but little in is7o, be- 
ing only 12 per cent, hut since 1870 
the proportion of mulattoes in the 
total negro population appears to 
have increased materially, reaching 
15.2 per cent in 1890, and. as given 
above. 20.9 per cent in 1910. 

INDIAN, (MINIM \Mi .1 W \MSK 
POP1 I \ I lo\ 

Since is'.io. the firs! census to in- 
clude an enumeration of Indians in 
Indian territory and on Indian reser- 
vations, the Indian population has 



I'S 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




DISTRIBUTION OF THE INDIAN POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES 



increased slightly, being 248,253 in 
1890 and 265,683 in 1910. During 
the same period the Chinese popu- 
lation decreased from 107,488 in 
1890 to 71,531 in 1910, while the 
Japanese population increased from 
2,039 in 1890 to 72,157 in 1910. There 
were also enumerated in 1910 other 
non-white races, consisting, for the 
greater part, of Hindus and Kore- 
ans, to the number of 3.175. 

PRINCIPAL CITIKS 

It may he of interest to consider 
the population of principal cities 
with respect to color, nativity and 
parentage. In only fourteen of the 
fifty cities having a population of 
over 100,000 did native whites of 
native parentage constitute as much 
as one-half of the total population. 
I'lie proportion exceeded three fifths 
in only four cities. Indianapolis, 
<;t.r> per cent: Columbus, 04.4 per 
cent; Dayton, 62 per cent, and Kan- 
sas City, 61.9 per cent. On the other 
hand, in twenty-two of the cities of 
this class, less than one-third of the 
population were native whites of 
oative parentage, over two-thirds in 
all imt one of these cities consisting 



of foreign-born whites and their 
children. In Fall River only 13.3 
per cent of the population were 
native whites of native parentage. 
In 10 cities of 100,000 inhabitants, 
or over, the population was more 
than one-third foreign-horn white, 
namely. Fall River, 42.0 per cent: 
Lowell, 40.9 per cent : New York, 
4(1.4 per cent: Paterson. ."><U per 
cent: Boston, 35.9 per cent; Chi- 
cago, 35.7 per cent : Bridgeport, 35.5 
per cent: Cleveland. .".4.'.> per cent: 
Providence. 34 per cent: and De- 
troit. 33.6 ]ter cent. 

The proportion of foreign-born 

whites was low in all of the smith 
ern cities. Among the northern 
cities it was lowest in Indianapolis 
(8.5 per cent) and Columbus (9 per 
cent). In many of the fifty cities 
having a population of over 100,000 
the proportion of native whites of 
foreign or mixed parentage was 
nearly the same as the proportion 
of foreign-horn whites. The native 
whites of foreign or mixed parentage 
were relatively most numerous in 
Milwaukee (48.8 per cent) and Fall 
River (43.7 per cent ). 

During the decade 1900-1910 the 



POPULATION 



2\) 



POPULATION OF CITIES 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

Census of 1910 



Cities of over 100,000 population 



Albany, N. Y 100,253 

Atlanta, Ga 154,839 

Baltimore, Md 558,485 

Birmingham, Ala... 132,685 

Boston, Mass 670,585 

Bridgeport, Conn 102,054 

Buffalo, N. Y 423,715 

Cambridge, Mass.... 104,839 

Chicago, 111 2,185,283 

Cincinnati, Ohio 364,463 

Cleveland, Ohio 560,663 

Columbus, Ohio 181,548 

Davton, Ohio 116,577 

Denver, Colo 213,381 

Detroit, Mich 465,766 

Fall River, Mass. . . . 119,295 

Grand Rapids, Mich. 112,571 



Indianapolis, Ind.... 233,650 

Jersey City, N. J... 267,779 

Kansas City, Mo.... 248,381 

Los Angeles, Cal.... 319,198 

Louisville, Ky 223,928 

Lowell, Mass 106,294 

Memphis, Tenn 131,105 

Milwaukee, Wis 373,857 

Minneapolis, Minn.. 301,408 

Nashville, Tenn 110,364 

Newark, N. J 347,469 

New Haven, Conn... 133,605 

New Orleans, La.... 339,075 
New York, N. Y.. ..4,766,883 

Oakland, Cal 150,174 

Omaha, Neb 124,096 

Paterson, N. J 125,600 



Philadelphia, Pa.. ..1,549,008 

Pittsburgh, Pa 533,905 

Portland, Ore 207,214 

Providence, R. I.... 224,326 

Richmond, Va 127,628 

Rochester, N. Y 218,149 

St. Louis, Mo 687,029 

St. Paul, Minn 214,744 

San Francisco, Cal.. 416,912 

Scranton, Pa 129,867 

Seattle, Wash 237,194 

Spokane, Wash 104,402 

Syracuse, N. Y 137,249 

Toledo, Ohio 168,497 

Washington, D. C... 331,069 

Worcester, Mass.... 145,986 



Cities of from 25,000 to 100,000 population 



Akron, Ohio 69,067 

Allentown. Pa 51,913 

Altoona, Pa 52,127 

Amsterdam, N. Y 31,267 

Atlantic City, N. J... 46,150 

Auburn, N. Y 34,668 

Augusta, Ga 41,040 

Aurora, 111 29,807 

Austin, Tex 29,860 

Battle Creek, Mich.... 25,267 

Bay City, Mich 45.166 

Bayonne, N. J 55,545 

Berkeley, Cal 40,434 

Binghamton, N. Y.... 48,443 

Bloomington, III 25,768 

Brockton, Mass 56,878 

Brookline, Mass *. 27,792 

Butte, Mont 39,165 

Camden. N. J 94.538 

Canton, Ohio 50,217 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa... 32,811 

Charleston, S. C 58,833 

Charlotte, N. C 34,014 

Chattanooga, Tenn.... 44,604 

Chelsea, Mass 32,452 

Chester, Pa 38,537 

Chicopee, Mass 25,401 

Clinton, Iowa 25,577 

Colorado Springs, 

Colo 29,078 

Columbia, S. C 26,319 

Council Bluffs, Iowa.. 29,292 

Covington, Ky 53,270 

Dallas. Tex 92.104 

Danville. Ill 27,871 

Pavenport, Iowa 43,028 



Decatur, 111 31,140 

Des Moines, Iowa 86,368 

Dubuque, Iowa 38,494 

Duluth, Minn 78,466 

Easton, Pa 28,523 

East Orange, N. J.... 34,371 
East St. Louis, 111.... 58,547 

El Paso, Tex 39,279 

Elgin, 111 25,976 

Elizabeth, N. J 73,409 

Elmira, N. Y 37,170 

Erie, Pa 66,525 

Evansville, Ind 69,647 

Everett, Mass 33,484 

Fitehburg, Mass 37,826 

Flint, Mich 38,550 

Fort Wayne, Ind 63,933 

Fort Worth, Tex 73,312 

Galveston, Tex 36,981 

Green Bay, Wis 25,236 

Hamilton, Ohio 35,279 

Harrisburg, Pa 64,186 

Hartford, Conn 98,915 

Haverhill, Mass 44,115 

Hazleton, Pa 25,452 

Hoboken, N. J 70,324 

Holyoke, Mass 5i,730 

Houston, Tex 78,800 

Huntington, W. Va... 31,161 

Jackson, Mich 31,*33 

Jacksonville, Fla 57,699 

Jamestown, N. Y 31,297 

Johnstown, Pa 55.482 

Joliet, 111 34.670 

.Toplin. Mo 32,073 

Kalamazoo, Mich 39,437 



Kansas City, Kans 82,331 

Kingston, N. Y 25,908 

Knoxville, Tenn 36,346 

La Crosse, Wis 30,417 

Lancaster, Pa 47,227 

Lansing, Mich 31,229 

Lawrence, Mass 85.892 

Lewiston, Me 26,247 

Lexington, Ky 35,099 

Lima. Ohio 30,508 

Lincoln, Neb 43.973 

Little Rock. Ark 45,941 

Lorain, Ohio 28,883 

Lynchburg, Va 29,494 

Lynn, Mass 89,336 

Macon, Ga 40.665 

McKeesport, Pa 42,694 

Madison, Wis 25,531 

Maiden, Mass 44,404 

Manchester, N. H 70,063 

Meriden, Conn 27,265 

Mobile, Ala 51,521 

Montgomery, Ala 38.130 

Mount Vernon. X. Y. . 30,919 

Muskogee, Okla 25,278 

Nashua, N. H 26,005 

Newark, Ohio 25,404 

New Bedford, Mass... 96,652 
New Britain, Conn... 43,916 

Newburgh, N. Y 27,805 

Newcastle, Pa 36,280 

Newport, Ky 30,309 

Newport, B. 1 27.149 

New Rochelle, N. Y... 28.867 

Newton, Mass 39,806 

Niagara Falls, N. Y.. 30,445 



30 



OIK ('(il'NTHY AMi ITS RESOURCES 



Norfolk, Va 67,452 

Norristown, Pa 27,875 

Ogden, Utah 25,580 

Oklahoma City, Okla.. >". 1 . ir- >."". 

Orange, N. .1 29,630 

Oshkosh, Wis 33,002 

Pasadena, Cal 80,291 

Passaic, N. J 54,778 

Pawtucket, K. 1 51,622 

Peoria, 111 66,950 

Perth Amboy, N. J.... 82,121 

Pittsfleld, Mass 32,121 

Portland, Me 58,571 

Portsmouth, Va 33,190 

Poughkeepsie, X. Y... 27,936 

Pueblo, Colo 44,395 

Quincy, 111 36,587 

Quincy, Muss 32.0 12 

Racine, wis 38,002 

Reading, Pa 96,071 

Roanoke, Va 34.S74 

Rockford, 111 45,401 

Sacramento, Cal 44,696 

Saginaw, Mich 50,510 



St. Joseph, Mo 77,403 

Salem, Muss 43,(197 

Salt Lake City, Otah. 92.777 

s.-ui Antonio, Tex 96,614 

San Diego, Cal 39, 57s 

San Jose, Cal 28,946 

Sa\ aiiuali, 6a 65,064 

Schenectady, N. Y.... 72,826 

Sheboygan, wis 20.:;:_>s. 

Shenandoi a, Pa 25,774 

Shreveport, La 28,015 

SiouX City, Iowa 17. s2s 

Somerrille, Mass 77.230 

South Bend, I ml 53,684 

South Omaha, Neb.. .. 26,259 

Springfield, 111 51,678 

Springfield, Mass 88,926 

Springfield, Mo 35,201 

Springfield, Ohio 46,921 

Stamford, Conn 25.13s 

Superior, Wis 40,384 

Tacoma, Wash 83,743 

Tampa, Pla 37,782 

Taunton, Mass 34,259 



Terre Haute, I ml 58,157 

Topeka, Kans 43,684 

Trenton. N. ,T 96,815 

Troy. N. Y 76,813 

Dtica, N. Y 74,419 

u aco, Tes 20.425 

Waltham, Mass 27,834 

Warwick, It. 1 26,629 

Waterbury, Conn 73,141 

Waterloo, leu a 26,693 

Watertown, N. Y 26,730 

\\ est Soboken, N. J.. 35,403 

Wheeling, W. Va 41,641 

Wichita, Kans 52,450 

Wilkes-Barre, Pa 07,105 

Williamsport, Pa 31,860 

Wilmington, Del S7.411 

Wilmington, N. C 25,748 

Woonsocket, R. 1 3s,12j 

Yonkers, N. Y 79,803 

York, l'a 44,750 

Youngstown, Ohio 79,066 

Zanesville, Ohio 28,026 



foreign-born white population in 
New York City advanced from 1,- 
260,918 to 1,927,703, an increase of 
666,785, while native whites of na- 
tive parentage increased only 183,- 
841. In 1910 only 19.3 per rent of 
the city's population consisted of 
native whites of native parentage. 
Of the total population of the United 
States approximately one-twentieth 
is domiciled in New York City; of 
the native whites of native paren- 



tage, one-fiftieth; of the native 
whites of foreign or mixed paren- 
tage, one-tenth; and of the foreign- 
horn, one-seventh. 

Among the larger cities the pro- 
portion of negroes in 1910 was high- 
est in Memphis, 40 per cent, followed 
by Birmingham, with 3'.t.4 per cent ; 
Richmond, 36.6 per cent ; Atlanta. 
33.5 per cent ; Nashville, 33.1 pel- 
cent; Washington, 28.5 per cent; 
New Orleans, 26.3 per cent; Louis- 




PR0P0RTI0N OF MALES TO FEMAIES IN THE TOTAL POPULATION, BY STATES 



: li- 



on* COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



villi-, 18.1 per cent; and Baltimore, 
L5.2 per cent, in do other city of 
over 100,000 inhabitants did the ne- 
gro element amounl to one-tenth of 
the population. Classified according 
to numbers, the following cities re- 
turned more than 50,000 negroes in 
1910: Washington, 94,446; New 
York, 91,709; New Orleans, 89,262; 
Baltimore, 84,749; Philadelphia, 84,- 
459; Memphis, 52,441; Birmingham, 
52,305; and Atlanta, 51,902. 

( I. ASM] l( ATION OF POPULATION BY SEX 

There were in the United Slates 
in 1910, 47,332,277 males and 44,- 
639,989 females, or 106 males to each 
100 females. 

The excess of males in the United 
Slates is partly due to extensive im- 
migration, a much larger proportion 
of the immigrants being males than 
females. In the native white popu- 
lation of the United States, how- 
ever, there is also an exeess of males 
over females, the ratio in 1910 being 
102.7 males to each 100 females. 

POPULATION 21 YEARS OF AGE AND 
OVER 

Persons 21 years of age and over 



have certain special legal rights 
with reference to property, the elec- 
tive franchise, and other matters. 
This class of the population is fur- 
ther significant from the social and 
economic standpoint, in that it in- 
cludes the great majority of bread- 
winners and also the great majority 
of married men and women. From 
the political standpoint particular 
interest attaches to statistics regard- 
ing males 21 years of age and over, 
although in several States women 
of that age also now have the right 
to vote at all elections. 

For the United States, exclusive 
of Alaska, Hawaii. Porto Rico, and 
other outlying possessions, the total 
population 21 years of age and over 
in 11)10 was 51,554,905, representing 
56.1 per cent of the total popula- 
tion of all ages. Of this number, 
26,999,151, or 20.4 per cent of the 
total population, were males, and 
24,555,754 were females. 

MALES OF MILITIA AGE 

Men from 18 to 44 years of age. 

inclusive, are subject to militia duty 
under the laws of most States, and 




Courtesy Literary Dlgesl 

WOMAN'S SUFFRAGE— DISTRIBUTION OF VOTERS 
White indicates Suffrage; dotted, limited Suffrage, and black, male Suffrage only. 



POPULATION 



represent substantially the theoreti- 
cal fighting strength of the country 
in ease of war. The total number 
of males from 18 to 44 years of age 
in 1910 was 20,473,684, representing 
22.3 per cent of the total population 
of the Country and 43.3 per cent of 
the total male population. 

IMMIGRATION 

Immigration into the United 
States has experienced a marked 
reduction as a result of the Euro- 
pean war, dropping from a total of 
1,21S,4S0 for the year ended June 
30, 1914, to 326,700, and 298,826 for 
the years ended June 30, 1915 and 
1916, respectively. This falling off 
is not of a temporary nature, but 
is certain to continue for many 
years, even after the close of the 
war. 

Of the 298,826 immigrant aliens 
admitted during the year ended 
June 30, 1916, 9.795 had been en- 
gaged in the professions. 45,528 were 
skilled laborers, 138,737 had been 
engaged in miscellaneous occupa- 
tions, and 104,766 (including the 
women and children) reported no 
occupation. Of the 129.765 emigrant 
aliens departed, 2,097 had been 
engaged in the professions. 13,874 
were skilled laborers, 96.405 had 
been engaged in miscellaneous occu- 
pations and 17.389 (including the 
women and children) reported no 
occupation. 

Eighteen thousand eight hundred 
and sixty-seven persons were de- 
barred during the year. Of this 
number. 10,383 were debarred as 
being likely to become p u b 1 i c 
charges. 1,153 as having a loathsome 
or dangerous contagions disease, 
1,657 as of mental defects (other 
than idiots, imbeciles and insane) 
and 2.0S0 as being contract laborers. 
There were 2,906 persons deported 
after landing, of which number 1.081 
were deported because of the possi- 
bility of becoming public charges, 
282 for insanity, 360 for bavins en- 
tered without inspection, 114 as 
criminals and 100 for loathsome or 
dangerous diseases. 




.*u 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



0C< I PATIOW - 

At the Thirteenth Census there 

were :;s. Tot;. :::::: persons ten years 
of age and over engaged in gainful 
occupations in the United states, in- 



total population and •">:;. :; per cent 
of the population ten years of age 
and over. ill the male population 
the gainful workers numbered 30,- 
091,564, which was 81.3 per cent of 



IMMIGRATION INTO THE INITED STATES, 1910-1916 





Fears Ended June 30 — 


Races 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


African (black) 


4,966 

.-...-.os 
8,462 

15,130 

1.770 
39,562 

3.331 

4,911 
13,012 

1,782 
53,498 
15,736 
21,107 
71,380 
39,135 
84,260 
38,382 
30,780 
192,673 

2,798 

19 

22,714 

27,302 

17,760 

61 

128,348 

7,657 
14,199 
17.294 
27,907 
52,037 
24,612 
32.416 

5,837 
900 

6,3 1 7 

1,283 

2,24 1 

1 , 1 5( i 

3.330 


6.721 
3.091' 
9,223 

10,222 
1,307 

18,982 
3,91 1 

1,400 

L3.862 

517 

57,258 

9,779 

18,132 

66,471 

37,021 

91,223 

40,246 

30,312 

159,638 

4,575 

8 

17.027 

19,996 

18,784 

12 

71,446 

7,469 

5,31 I 

18,721 

17,721 

45,859 

25,625 

21,415 

8,068 

1,153 

5, 1 I I 

918 

2,248 

1,111 

3.323 


6,759 
5.222 

8, 139 

10,657 
1,608 

24,366 
3,155 

3,672 

10, 935 
165 
19,689 
6,641 
18,382 
65,3-43 
31,566 
80,595 
33,922 
26.1-13 

135,830 
6,172 

33 

1 1,078 
23,599 

22.0(11 
3 

85,163 

9.103 

8.329 
22,558 

21.965 

31.601 
20,293 

25,281 

9.070 
1,342 
5,525 

1 .336 
2,239 

1,132 

3. OliO 


6,634 

9.353 
11.091 

9,087 
2,022 

12.199 
3,099 

1,520 
I 1,507 

188 

55,522 

12,756 

20.652 

80,865 

38,644 

101,330 

37,023 

12.53 1 

231,613 

8,302 

64 

24.647 

30,610 
10,954 
11 
171.365 
13,566 
13.451 
51.172 

30,588 

38.737 

21.293 

27,23 1 

9,042 

1.363 

9,210 

2.015 

2,820 

1.171 
3.038 


8.(17 

7.785 

9,928 

L5.084 
2,354 

37,284 
3,539 

5,149 

12,566 

172 

51,746 

12,805 

18,166 

79.87 1 

15,881 
138.051 

33,898 

1 I si 12 

251.011' 

8.9 11 

152 

21 584 

1 1,538 
13,089 

1 

122.657 

9.6 17 

2 1.070 
1 1.957 

36,727 

36,053 

18.997 

25,8 19 

1 1,064 

1,5 14 

9.023 

2.693 

2,558 

1.396 

3 830 


5.. ',00 

932 

1.651 

3.5O0 

2.469 
1,942 

3,402 

305 

6,675 

82 

38.001' 

3.472 

12,636 

20.729 

15.187 

26, 197 

23.503 
10.000 

46,557 

8,609 

1 10 

2.038 

3,604 

10.993 

6 

9.065 

4.376 
1.200 

1,459 

2.933 
24,263 
14.310 

2.009 
5.705 
1.007 
1.707 
273 
1.390 

823 
1.87; 


4,576 
964 


Bohemian and Moravian 
Bulgarian, Serbian, 
Montenegrin 


642 

3.146 
2. "39 


< !roal ian and Slovenian 


791 
3.442 


Dalmatian, Bosnian, 

HiT/.t \ inian 

Dutch and Flemish 

Bast Indian 


114 

0.1 13 
80 

30.108 


Finnish 

French 


5.0 19 

19,518 

11.555 


Greek 


20.792 
15.108 




20,636 




4.905 




33.909 


Japanese 

Korean 


8.711 
154 
599 


Magyai 


981 


Mexican 

Pacific [slander 


17,198 

5 
4,502 


Poet uguese 


12,208 
953 




4,858 


Ruthenian i Russniak) . . 


1.305 
19.172 


Scotch 


13.515 




57 7 


Spanish 

Spanish American 


9.259 

1.881 
070 




216 


Welsh 


983 


Wesl Indian (except 


948 




3.388 






Total 


i on 570 


S7s r,s7 


B38 i 72 


1,197.892 


1,218,480 


326.700 


298,826 



eluding Alaska. Hawaii. Porto Rico, 
and the military and naval stations 
abroad. The gainful workers thus 
formed n. r. per cent of the total 
populal ion. 

In continental United States the 
gainful workers numbered 38,167,- 
a'M, which was 41.5 per cent of the 



the males ten j ears of age and >>\ er. 
in the female population the gainful 
workers (lumbered 8,075,772, which 
was 1':;. I per cent of all females ten 
years of age and over. Thus, in the 
population ten years of age and o\ er, 
more than one-halt' of all persons, 
over four-fifths Of the males, lull 



POPULATION 



35 





....■.-." -- --■ ..'.'. . NQflppppi 






KriiiOinnwmnain.ti 



Photo by Irving Underhill 

ELLIS ISLAND, AMERICA'S GREATEST GATEWAY 



less than one-fourth of the females, 
were gainfully occupied. 

In the States the proportion of the 
population ten years of age and over 
engaged in gainful occupations in 
1910 ranged from 4(1.0 per cent in 
Iowa to 68 per cent in Mississippi. 
The States having the smallest pro- 
portions were: Iowa, 46.9 per cent: 
Kansas, 47 per cent; Nebraska. 47.7 
per cent; Utah, 47.9 per cent; and 
Indiana 48 per cent. The States 
having the largest proportion were 
North Carolina, 60 per cent; Geor- 
gia. 61.5 per cent; Wyoming. 62.6 
per cent; Nevada, 64.3 per cent; 
Alabama, 64.7 per cent ; South Caro- 



lina, 67.6 per cent; and Mississippi, 
68. 7 per cent. Except in three States 
— Arizona, Montana and North Da- 
kota — there was an increase, from 
1900 to 1910, in the proportion of 
the population ten years of age and 
over engaged in gainful occupations. 
The States showing the largest in- 
creases were Alabama. Arkansas, 
Georgia, Mississippi, Nevada, North 
Carolina. South Carolina and Texas. 

DEATHS IN REGISTRATION AREA 

The total number of deaths re- 
turned from the registration area of 
the United States for the year 1914 
was 898,059. The estimated mid- 



NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF PERSONS IN GENERAL DIVISIONS- OF 

OCCUPATIONS 



Occupation 


Total 


Per Cent of 
Gainful 
Workers 


All occupations 


38,167.336 


100.0 




Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry 
Extraction of minerals (mining and quarrying) 


12,619.203 

964,824 

10,658,881 

L'.r,:{7.671 

3.61 1,670 

459,291 

1.663,569 

3.772.174 

1.737.053 


33.2 
2 5 


Manufacturing and mechanical industries . 


27 9 


Transportation 




Trade 




Public Service .... 




Professional Service. . 




Domestic and Personal Service . . . 


9 9 


Clerical Occupations 


4.6 



36 



OIK COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES 



year population of this area was 
65,989,295, or 66.8 per cent of the 
total population of the United 
States. The death rate for the year 
was 13.6 per one thousand popula- 
tion, the lowest on record since the 
establishment of the registration 
area in 1880, being 19.8 in 1880, 
19.6 in 1890, 17.15 in 1900, 16.0 in 
1005, lf>.0 in 1910 and 14.1 in 1913. 

The deaths among the white pop- 
ulation numbered 824,319, or 917.9 
for every thousand deaths. Of this 
number, 005.349 were native born; 
327,696 had both parents native; 
203,1S9 had one or both parents for- 
eign born; and 74,404 of unknown 
parentage. Other deaths among the 
white population were 207,272 for- 
eign born, and 11,698 unknown. The 
deaths among the colored population, 
numbering 73.740, or 82.1 for every 
thousand deaths, were divided as 
follows: .Negro. 70.429; Chinese, 
1,018; Japanese. 904; Indian, 1,309; 
and other colored, 20. 

Of the total number of deaths 
4 , .tl.41('» were males, and 406,643 
were females. The total number of 
deaths among children less than one 
year of age was 155,075; of those 
from one to live years of age. 58,045; 
from five to twenty-live, N0.355; 
from twenty-live to fifty, 196,087; 
from fifty to seventy-live. 217,207; 
over seventy-five, 123,963, of which 
467 were one hundred years of age 
or over; and of ages unknown, 
1,327. Out of every thousand 
deaths 172.7 occurred before the end 
of the lirst year of life: 96.2 between 
the ages of live and twenty-five; 



218.5 between the ul'cs of twenty- 
live and fifty; .';i>7.<! between the 
ages of fifty and seventy-live; and 
138.0 over seventy-five years of age. 

The number of deaths in the regis- 
tration area during 1914 from vari- 
ous causes were as follows: T.v 
phoid fever, 10,188; malaria, 1.477: 
smallpox, 212; measles, 4,401; scar- 
let fever. 4,340; whooping cough. 
6,816; diphtheria and croup, 11,786; 
influenza, 0,014; other epidemic dis- 
eases. 0.125; tuberculosis, 96,903; 
cancer, 52,420; diabetes, 10,666; 
diseases of the nervous system and 
organs of special sense, 87,614: dis- 
eases of the circulatory system. 123,- 
901; diseases of the respiratory sys- 
tem, 104,086 ; diseases of the diges 
tive system, 99,673; non-venereal 
diseases of the genito-urinary sys- 
tem, 7s.oj::; suicide, 10,933; homi- 
cide, 4.S47 ; and other external 
causes, 51.770. 

The death rate per 100,000 of pop- 
ulation for the more important 
causes was as follows: Typhoid 
fever, 15.4: malaria. 2.2: measles, 
6.8; scarlet fever. 6.6; whooping 
cough, 10.3: diphtheria and croup. 
17.9; influenza, 9.1: tuberculosis. 
146.S; cancer, 79.4; diabetes, 16.2; 
diseases of the nervous system and 
organs of special sense. 132.8; dis- 
eases of the circulatory system. 
187.8; diseases of the respiratory 
system, 157.7; diseases of the di- 
gestive system, 151.0; non-venereal 
diseases of the genito-urinary sys- 
tem. 118.2; suicide, 16.6; homicide, 
7.. - :. and other external violence. 
78.5. 




CHAPTER III. 

AGRICULTURE 

By C. H. CLAUDY 



THE unthinkable number is one 
which conveys no idea to the 
mind — a number so large that 
one twice as large or half as large 
makes the same impression. 

Such a number measures the dol- 
lars which value the agricultural 
production of the United States in 
a year. To say that the total esti- 
mated value of all crops and animal 
products for the year ending June 



enough, working every minute of 
every day and every night, to make 
out deposit slips to put it in a bank 
in a year's time. It represents a 
hundred dollars for every man, 
woman and child in the country. 
If the cost of the Panama Canal is 
$500,000,000, one year's crops would 
build twenty such canals! If it 
costs Europe $20,000,000 a day to 
have a war, then we could finance 




SCENE ALONG THE BRANDYWINE, SHOWING TYPICAL CHESTER COUNTY (PA.) 

TOPOGRAPHY 



30, 1915, is $10,501,686,375 conveys 
small impression of its real worth. 

If a man could keep awake 
twenty-four hours in a day, and 
could live for a hundred years under 
such conditions, he would have to 
spend during every waking minute 
of his life something more than $199 
to dispose of this sum in the hun- 
dred years. 

If the sum were handed him in 
$5,000 lots, he could not write fast 



it for them for seventeen months 
with the agricultural products of 
one year. 

AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION 

It is. of course, an impossibility 
to do more than indicate the extent 
of agriculture or its immense im- 
portance not only to the United 
States but to the world. Those who 
wish particular facts of any special 
subject can obtain Volume V. of the 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



38 



(UK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Census <>f 1910, which gives figures 
Cor L909 in '.»-T closely printed pages, 
many tallies and graphic drawings, 
or the fear Hook of the Department 
of Agriculture, which has a number 
of "graphs" as well as 174 pages 
of finely printed statistics. Best of 
all, however, for the man interested 
in some one special phase of this 
question is the opportunity afforded 
him by correspondence with the De- 
partment of Agriculture. Inquiries 
on any subject connected with agri- 
culture receive prompt attention in 
I'ncle Sam's greatest department 
and information to answer any in- 
quiry is either on hand or will be 
obtained for any inquirer. 

GEXEKAL STATISTICS 
The total area of the Tinted States 
is 1,903,269,000 acres, of this 46.2 
per cent is productive land: that is, 
land which is capable of being 
turned into farm, grazing or tillable 
area, exclusive of any possible fu- 
ture engineering developments in 
the reclamation held which may 
make vast areas, now arid, agricul- 
tural possibilities. 



( )f this 46.2 per cent of productive 
land. 293,794.000 acres (1910 census 
figures, latest available), represent- 
ing 15.4 per cent of the total area, 
are under cultivation. 

Thirty-six of the principal agri- 
cultural countries of the world have 
M0.5 per cent of their total area 
possibly productive and but S.7 of 
their total area under production. 
With a ratio of a] (proximately one 
to four for the world, then, the 
United States has approximately 
one to three (one-third i of its agri- 
cultural possibilities developed. 

FUTURE OF AGRICULTURE IX THE 
UNITED STATES 

The United States, in spite of its 
showing in area and its leadership 
of the world in the world's principal 
crops, can by no means be considered 
to have even begun to realize its 
agricultural possibilities. It can 
triple its area under cultivation 
with the same methods and the 
same productiveness and still fall 
far behind the averages of other 
countries which have been compelled 
to make intensive agriculture a 



INCREASK l\ VAI.UK <>F FARM PRODUCTS 
BASED ON PKK'KS AT THK FAKM 



Year 



census 
(census i 



L879 

1889 
1897. 
1898. . . 

IN'.HI (census 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

L905 

L906 

1907 

1908 

L909 (cens i 

1910 

I'.tll 

1912 

I'M:', 

I'M I 

1915 estimate 



Total, gross 



82,212, 
2,460 
3,960 
4,338 
1.717 
5.009 



5,302 
5.594 
5,887 
6,121 
6.273 
6,764 
7. IS7 
7,890 
8 558 
9,037 
8,819 

9.849 



9 894 
10,501 



540, 
107, 
821, 
945, 
069, 
595, 
120 
645 

170 

77S 

997, 
210 
988 
625 
161 
390 
17 i 
7'. in 
5 1 2 
960 
686 



!r_>7 
454 
685 
829 
973 
006 
039 
072 
101 
001 

362 
123 
622 
522 

2L':? 
711 
959 
1 19 

51 I 
53 1 

.-'.7.-) 



Crops 



Value 



$2,519 
2,759 
2,998 
3,191 
3,385 
3,578 
3,771 
3 981 
1,012 
1,263 
4,761 

5 098 
5,487 
5,486 
5,562 
5.842 
6,132 
6,1 1 1 

6 652 



082.592 
569,547 
704.412 
941,763 
179,114 
lie. 165 
653,816 
675,866 
652,758 

.1 1 1,839 
292,549 
,161,223 
,373,550 
058,150 
,220,4 19 
758,962 

li.S-1.020 

288 634 



Percent- 
age of 
total 



63 . 6 
63 6 

63 6 

63 . 7 
63 . s 
64.0 

64 1 

65 (i 
64 (» 
63 

63 6 

64 6 
i,i 1 
60 7 
63. l 

62 S 
R2 3 
,,l s 

63 3 



Animals and animal 

products 



Value 



81 ,441 
1 ,.">7'1 
1.7 IS 

1 817 
1,916 
2.016 
2,1 15 
2,1 K) 
2,261 

2 51 1 1 
2,726 
2,792 
3,071 
3,551 
3,257 
3,500 
3,716 
3.783 

3 849 



739.093 
:;7i;.2s2 
365,561 
653,243 
940,925 
228,607 
516,288 
L02.135 
34 1,604 
076,070 
876,783 
332,973 
000,000 

017. I'M 

1 16,809 
569,700 
753,549 
276.51 1 
397.741 



Percent- 
age of 
total 



36.4 
36.4 
36.4 
36.3 
36.2 
36.0 
35.9 

35 

36 
37.0 
36 t 
35 l 
35.9 
39 3 
36.9 
37.5 
37.7 
38.2 
36.7 



1(1 



nil; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



study, from the potato field to the 
orchard, the grazing field to the 
wheat field. 

The 1910 census gave 10,582,000 
males as actively engaged in agri- 
culture in the United States, 35.2 
per cent of males engaged in all 
occupations. Females engaged in 
agriculture to the number of 1,806,- 
584, 22.4 per cent of all women en- 
gaged in all occupations. This 
makes a total of 12.3S8.623 people 
engaged in agriculture, or 32.5 per 
cenl of the people engaged in all 
occupations. Compare with the fol- 
lowing countries (percentages from 
most recenl figures obtainable) : 

Of the total population there are 
engaged in agriculture in Argentina 
23.6 per cent. Australia 25.6 per 
cent, Austria-Hungarj (pre-war) 03 
per cent, British India (J7.1 per cent, 
Canada ::9.9 per cent, France (pre- 
war) 42.1 per cent. Germany (pre- 
war) 34.6 per cent, Italy (pre-war i 
58.S per cent, the Philippines 41.3 
per cent, Spain 56.9 per cent. Sweden 
52.S per cent, Union of South Africa 
65.1 per cent, United Kingdom 12.4 
per cent. 



With these figures in mind, and 
not forgetting the possibilities of 
intensive cultivation, which, as 
shown in the following statistics for 
several commodities, is practiced 
abroad so effectively as greatly to 
increase the yield per acre over 
United states figures, it is obvious 
that the limit of agricultural devel- 
opment in this country is so far 
distant that no man can foresee it. 
Eliminating all possibilities of in- 
crease of tillable area through irri- 
gation, and all possibilities of in- 
crease of yield through modern 
scientific development, not this nor 
many future generations will see the 
ability of this land to support its 
population from an agricultural 
standpoint reached or passed. 



The more than double doubling of 
farm products within one generation 
is a sure indication of the wonderful 
growth of the United States. Pages 
mighl be written about it, hut could 
do no more than show what the table 
on page 38 expresses so vividly. 



ARGENTINA 
AUSTRALIA 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

(pi-e-WOr) 

BRITISH INDIES 
CANADA 

FRANCFCPre-wa-) 

GERMANY(^<vvor) 

ITALY (Pre-WOr-) 

PHILIPPINES 

SPAIN 

SWEDEN 

UNION OFSAFRICA 

UNITED KINGDOM 

UNITED STATES 

PER CENT OF POPULATION ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS 






42 



ni R COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES 



KFFEcT OF Tin: WAS 

The war has had a tremendous 
effecl upon production of United 

States staples and their export. The 
wheat production 1915 was the 
record for the United states, greater 
than any previous year by 128,000,- 
ooo bushels. Exports of wheat and 
wheat flour jumped from $142,000,- 
O00 in 1014 to $428,000,000 in 1915, 
a proportion which is considerably 
less than the jump in corn, which 
with cum meal was from $7,000,000 
to over $39,000,000. Neither crop, 
however, compares in its export 
jump with oats. In 1014 the Tinted 
States exported $1,000,000 worth and 
in 1915 $57,000,000 worth. It is 
hardly necessary to chronicle, be- 
cause every one knows that the im- 
mense increase in exports of food 
stuffs as well as manufactures 
changed the status of the balance 
of trade for this country. It is also 
well known how the export of cotton 
decreased, the figures being from 
$610,000,000 to $376,000,000 in a 
year. 

But in spite of the loss in cotton 
the war has had on the whole a 
very beneficial effecl upon American 
agriculture. Exports of wheat and 
wheat flour represented over M7 per 
cent of the 1014 crop, while the usual 
exportation is less than 20 per cent. 
Farmers received an average of 79 
cents iter bushel for the 1913 wheat 
crop and $1.01 for the crop of 1014. 
an increase of '■>- cents per bushel 
or an aggregate gain of approxi- 
mately $100,000,000. 



PRODUCTION OF SPECIAL CROPS 

Because of the vastness of the 
subject it is impossible to do more 
than indicate here the value and 
extent of a few of the principal 

crops of the United States. 1 nless 
otherwise stated, statistics given are 
for 1015 and prices are values at 
the farm. 

Because the United states pro- 
duces more wheat than any other 
country, and a greai deal more than 
we use. many people think wheat is 
our principal crop. Such is not the 
case, corn being the principal crop 
of the United states. 
Corn 

One hundred and ei^ht million 
three hundred and twenty-one thou- 
sand acres in the United States are 
under cultivation for the corn crop 
of 3,054,535,000 bushels. As the 
production for all of North America. 
including Canada. United States and 
Mexico; Argentina, Chile and Uru- 
guay in South America: Austria- 
Hungary, Bulgaria, France, Italy, 
Portugal and Roumania, Russia. 
Servia. Spain. India (both British 
and native states), Japan, the Philip- 
pine Islands. Algeria, Egypt and 
Union of South Africa. Australia 
and New Zealand, was hut 3,864,- 
l.'7'.Uim bushels in 1014. it is easily 
understood why the United States 
is the greatest corn producing coun- 
try in the world. Argentina, with 
10,386,000 acres under corn cultiva- 
tion, is next in productive ability. 
hut her total crop for 1915 was but 
338,000,235 bushels. 



PRODUCTION" of CORN I\ THE UNITED STATES 1849-1910 



Year 


Acreage 


\\ erage 

j icM pei- 
acre 


Production 


Average 

farm price 
per bushel 


Farm Value 


1849 


V.CF68 


Push. 

Lis I 
29.4 

28 I 

_'.". '.i 
28 2 


Bushels 

592,071.000 

838,793,000 

760,945,000 

1,754.592.000 

•_'. 122,328,000 

2,61 MJ.32 1,000 

2,552, 190 000 

4,535,000 


Cents 

57 .'9 

~>7 . 5 


Dollars 


IS.". '.I 






L869 






1879 


62,369,000 
72,088,000 
94,914,000 
183,000 
108,321,000 




L889 




L899 




L909 
1915 


\A77.22.i.()00 
L.755,859,000 



ACKICILTURE 



43 



Wheat 

World production of wheat is 
4,216,806,000 bushels. Of this the 
United States produces 1.011,505,000 
bushels, more than is grown even in 
Russia, the yield of which is esti- 
mated to be 833,965,000 bushels. In 
the United States 59,89S,000 acres 
are under cultivation for wheat, an 
increase of over 9.000,000 acres in 
the past two years. A remarkable 
fact in connection with the world's 
wheat production is that Germany, 
which produces but 160,000,000 bush- 
els of wheat in a year, has. by an 
average of statistics for ten years, 
a yield of 30.7 bushels to the acre, 
whereas the average for the same 
period in the United States is but 
14.S bushels. Hungary has an aver- 
age of 18.1 bushels. France 20.1 and 
the United Kingdom 33.4 bushels. 
Either land abroad is more produc- 
tive or methods of farming are more 
intensive ; nevertheless the United 
States easily leads the world in pro- 
ducing the raw material for the staff 
of life. 
On a basis of prices as on Decem- 




TAKING ON A CARGO OF WHEAT 

her 1st. the value of tbis wheat crop 
is $930,302,000. Wheat is produce.] 
in every State in the Union, although 

.Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
Rhode Island, Connecticut. Florida 
and Louisiana produce but little. 
North Dakota is the greatest wheat 
producing Sate, yielding 151,970,000 
bushels, followed by Kansas with 
106,53S,000 bushels. 

It is interesting to note that the 
average yield per acre in bushels 




WORLDS WHEAT PRODUCING AREAS 



n 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




WORLDS PRODUCTION OF RICE & OATS 



Increased in 101." to 10.0 bushels 
per acre, which is considerably 
greater than the smallest year 
(1911) yield average of 12% bush- 
els per acre. The 1915 yield per 
acre was almost 2 bushels an acre 
greater than the average for the 10 
years from 1906 to 1916, which was 
exactly 15 bushels to the acre for 
the whole United States. It Is also 
interesting and a little puzzling to 

lean: that the greatest yield of 

wheat per acre eoines from Vermont, 
not known as a wheat producing 

Slate. but the \\-\v wheat farms Of 

which give an average <>f ::o bushels 

In the acre. The poorest wheat pro- 
ducing State in yield per acre is 
Tennessee with 10%, followed by 
South Carolina with 10.8 bushels 
per acre. 

OaU 

Fortj million seven bundred and 
eighty thousand acres of farm land 
are under cultivation for oat'-, pro- 
ducing 1,540,362,000 bushel-. The 
world's production i- estimated to 
he in excess of 1,700,000,000 bushels. 



Russia produces the second largest 
amount with 1,006,983,000 bushels, 
followed by Germany with 650,000. 

01 M l bushels. The United States falls 
far below other countries in the 
average yield of oats per acre. The 
average yield in the United states 
from 1905 to 191 1 was 29.5 bushels 
per acre. In the same period Ger 
many produced 54, Hungary 31.5, 
France 31J and the United Kingdom 
43.5 bushels of oats per acre. The 
total value of the oats produced in 
the United States in 1915 was $555,- 
569,000. 

Barley 

Unspectacular, because compara- 
tively little known, is the barley 
crop, yet the United States has 
7,395,000 acres devoted to its pro- 
duction, resulting in 237,009,000 
bushels. Barley is much more 
largely grown and highly thought 
of abroad than here. World produc- 
tion is 1,542,972,000 bushels, of 
which Russia produces 17o.100.000 
bushels, almost double that >f the 
United states. The value of the 



AGRICULTURE 



45 



United states barley crop is $122,- 
499,000. 

Rye 

Forty-nine million one hundred 
and ninety thousand bushels of rye, 
valued at $41,295,000, grew on 
2,856,000 acres, a small fraction of 
the world's production of 1,711,158,- 
000 bushels. Any farm product in 
the United States worth less than 
$50,000,000 for the year is to be con- 
sidered among the comparatively 
unimportant products. 

Buckwheat 

Similarly buckwheat, of which 
806,000 acres produce 15,769,000 
bushels at a value of $12,408,000, 
comes among the unimportant crops, 
yet buckwheat, used as it is largely 
for a breakfast food, is increasing 
in popularity in the United States. 
The value of the product ten years 
ago was but $S,565,000 ; twenty 
years ago it was $6,936,000. 

Potatoes 
Although corn and wheat lead the 
agricultural products of the United 



states, potatoes are among the most 
commercially important. They af- 
ford one of the most nutritious and 
one of the cheapest foods for the 
table of rich and poor alike. A 
failure in the potato crop means dis- 
aster. Three million seven hundred 
and sixty-one thousand acres are 
devoted in the United States exclu- 
sively to the production of potatoes. 
The production is .359,103.000 bush- 
els, a large increase in the past ten 
years, the 1905 figures being 260,- 
741,000 bushels. The average farm 
price per bushel is 61.6 cents, or a 
total value for the whole crop of 
$221,104,000. Potatoes are among 
the most universally grown crops in 
the United States, every State pro- 
ducing enough to make a variation 
in the statistics if omitted. Even 
little Rhode Island has over 5,000 
acres devoted to the production of 
the popular "spud," growing 550,000 
bushels. Maine and New York are 
the two largest producers of pota- 
toes, both accounting for 22,010,000 
bushels. The value of the New York 
crop is about $3,000,000 greater than 




WORLDS PRODUCTION OF MAIZE & BARLEY 



46 



OUR COUNTRY A.sl» its RES( »1 RCES 



that of the Maine crop, although 
Maine produces its crop from l 12,000 
acres, whereas New York has 355,- 
000 acres engaged in potato produc- 
tion. 

The production <>f potatoes abroad 
makes a curious comparison with 
that of the United Stales. The world 
production is 5,714,188,000 bushels 
(1913 figures). Of this enormous 
total Austria-Hungary alone pro- 
duced 627,728,000, one third mere 
bushels than produced and used by 
the United States in 1915. Germany 



by it he sustains his working tools, 
the farm animals, and feeds the 
stuck, which is in itself a crop. In 
the United States 50,872,000 acres 
produce hay with an average yield 
of 1.68 tens per acre. This makes 
the total production 85,225,000 tons, 
a weight as impossible to realize as 
it is to grasp the fact that it is 
\ alued at $912,320,000. The com- 
bined navies of the world have not 
a tonnage equal to the United states 
hay crop. A fleet of two thousand 
boats, each the size and dimensions 




WORLDS PRODUCTION OF POTATOES & SAGO 



produces 1,674,377,000 bushels of po- 
tatoes, whereas the total for l'.uro- 
pean Russia is 1,269,696,000 hush- 
els. It is amusing to note that of 
the 279,121,000 bushels produced by 
the United Kingdom in 19] I. Scot- 
land grew 10,270,000, Wales 5,4 15,- 
000, England 104,504,000 and Ire- 
land the balance of 128,642,000 
bushels of Irish "praties." 

Hay 

To the farmer few crops are of 
more Importance than hay. because 



of the ill-fated "Lusltania," would 
not weigh as much, nor are there 
wheeled vehicles enough in the 

United States, outside of railroad 
equipment, to load a year's crop 
upon it and haul it to market in one 
day's time. New York and Pennsyl- 
vania are the two leading States. 
the former growing 5,850,000 tons 
on 4,500,000 acres, valued at $91,- 
845,000, and the latter growing 
1,340,000 tons on 3,100,000 acres, 
valued ai $67,704,000. Rhode Island 
produced the least amount of hay, 



AGRIC1 LTURE 



47 



getting 71,000 tons from 57,000 
acres. 

Cotton 

No crops are more important to 
manufacturing than cotton. Most 
agricultural products either feed the 
world or the animals which, work- 
ing for farmers, assist in feeding the 
world. Cotton and wool, however, 
are agricultural products which are 
used for clothing, and cotton, much 
more than wool, is of enormous im- 
portance in the arts. The war con- 
ditions hurt the cotton industry in 
this country to a very large extent. 
but a recovery is now under way. 
and even though the war continues 
it will in time grow nearly to nor- 
mal. Under usual conditions over 
65 per cent of the cotton crop of the 
United States is exported, 53 per 
cent of our total agricultural ex- 
ports consisting of cotton. Conse- 
quently anything which hurts its ex- 
portation strikes a blow at the whole 
cotton industry of the United States, 
much as if over half of our wheat 
crop or half of our farm animals 
should suddenly be wiped out of 
existence. 

On the 1st of August, 1914, cotton 
sold at an average of 12.4 cents a 
pound. By November it had declined 
to (I.. - : cents a pound, a reduction of 
nearly one half. The whole cotton 
crop of 1913 averaged to its pro- 
ducers 12*4 cents per pound, where- 
as that of 1914 averaged but 7.3 
cents, a decline of over 40 per cent. 
In other words, over $283,000,000, 
or one-third of the estimated value 
of the cotton crop, was lost on ac- 
count of the war, and this in spite 
of the fact that production in 1914 
was almost 2,000,000 bales greater 
than in 1913. 

It is difficult for the uninitiated 
to appreciate the extent to which 
the South depends upon its cotton 
product. Cotton and cotton seed 
represent almost two thirds of the 
value of all crops produced in 
Georgia and Mississippi. Cotton 
represents 63 per cent of the value 
of al, crops produced in Texas, 60 
per cent of those produced in Ala- 



bama and 53 per cent of those pro- 
duced in Arkansas. 

The industrial depression caused 
by the shrinkage in cotton values 
was severe, but by June, 1915, the 
total shipments for the year were 
within 8 per cent of the preceding 
year. Nevertheless the value has 
shrunk, in spite of crop recovery, 
over 38 per cent. As a result of this, 
plus the foreign demand for grain, 
the acreage under cultivation for 
wheat, barley, oats and other cereals 
needed abroad has greatly increased, 
while cotton planters now plant a 
much smaller acreage than in pre- 
war times. The estimate for the 
cotton crop for the fiscal year is 



B"»>{ 




> • 

£ \ 








- fcdtf 




: ^*r 




£"J 




9S* ^^5 






1 Tl|W 


JflBB 






■ ■ ' > ■ •' i 


E^H 




Sgtjj23 




1 si r&8* 


J pp 


^QPWSi 













MECHANICAL COTTON PICKER 

less than 11,000,000 bales, which, 
compared with the production of 
16,134,000 bales in 1914 and with 
an average yearly production in the 
preceding five years of 13,033,000 
bales, is rather small. The decrease 
results from a reduction of about 15 
per cent in the acreage planted in 
cotton and a 20 per cent poorer yield. 
Few countries give official statis- 
tics for the production of cotton, so 
that to state any figure and call it 
the world's production of cotton is 
impossible with any degree of accu- 
racy. British I n d i a produced 



50 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



4,238,494 bales of cotton in 1914 
against over 16,000,000 for the 
United States for the same year. 
The total for Russia Id 1914 was 
1,177,995 bales and Egypt is credited 
with 1,450 1 000 bales during the same 
period, statistics of 1910 give the 
world's production of l'l'J:::'..!');!) 
bales of cotton, but arc frankly in- 
accurate and arc only for those com- 
paratively few countries from which 
figures arc available. Normally the 
United states has under cultivation 

in the neighborh 1 of 36,000,000 

acres of cotton and could normally 
expect this year to produce a much 
larger quantity than will be picked 
under the abnormal conditions. 

Texas is the largest producer of 
cotton among the States, accounting 
for 3,175,000 bales of 500 pounds 
each. Georgia is next with 1,900,- 
000 hales, followed by South Caro- 
lina with 1,160,000 hales. Virginia 
lias the smallest cotton crop, mar- 
keting hut 16,000 bales. 

Tobacco 

In the year 1849 the United States 
produced 199,753,000 pounds of 
tobacco. In 1915 our production was 
1,060,587,000 pounds, a crop valued 
at $96,041,000 at the farms of 1,368,- 
400 acres which produced it. Ken- 
tucky is the Leading tobacco state. 
with 356,400,000 pounds yearly, fol- 
lowed by North Carolina with 198,- 
100,000 and Virgina with 1 14,375,- 
(hio pounds. 

Tobacco is one of the agricul- 
tural products which we both export 
and import, the Imports, however. 
falling far short of the exports. In 
191 i our exports were 348,346,091 
pounds (more than 40 per cent of 
the crop) and our imports 1 .~. . T « '► 4 . - 
TL'S pounds. The reason for any im- 
ports, of course, is the fact thai 
there are SO many varieties of 
tobacco, and not all kinds grow well. 
or in sufficient quantity, in the cli- 
mate of our Southern States. Both 

exports and Imports given above are 
of the unmanufactured tobacco. 
World figures for tobacco production 
are not available with any degree 



of accuracy since p.m. when the 
total was 2,566,202,000 pounds, not 

unite three times the production of 

the United States alone in that year. 

Flax 
Hue million three hundred and 
sixty-seven thousand acres produce 
13,845,000 bushels of flax and flax 
seed, of which the average farm 
price per bushel is $1,739. The total 
value is thus $24,080,000. North 
Dakota leads all tlax producing 
states with an acreage of 660,000 
and a production of 6,534,000 hush- 
els, and as the value of this North 
Dakota flax was over $11,000,000 
this one State has nearly half the 
tlax industry of the United States. 

Rice 
Rice is nor one of the great crops 
of the United States and yet an 
acreage of 803,000 is devoted' to its 
growing. Twenty-eighl million nine 
hundred and forty-seven bushels of 
rice, with a value of $26,212,000, i- 
the rice industry's contribution to 
our agricultural wealth. For com- 
parison with statistics of other coun- 
tries it is necessary to express pro- 
duction in pounds. In 1914 we grew 
656,917,000 pounds, while Italy pro- 
duced 741,263,000 pounds and British 
India 62,638,912,000 pounds. Japan 
grew 17,827,247,000 pounds and our 
own Philippine Islands 1,403,516,000 
pounds. Just what a small propor- 
tion of the total rice crop of the 
world is ours is shown by the 
world's figures for 1913, 100,700,000,- 
000 pounds of rice. 

.1/;///' x 

Apples arc among die Important 

fruit crops of the United states. 

Of three bushel barrels there were 

76,670,000 grown, at an average 

price of 7 1.6 cents per bushel at 
the farm. The principal apple pro- 
ducing State is New York, with 
8,528,000 barrels, followed by Mis- 
souri with 6,287.000 barrels and 
Pennsylvania with 5,085,000 barrels. 
There arc more than .".."i varieties of 
apples extensively grown ill the 
United States, oi which the most 



54 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




WORLDS PRODUCTION OF WINE 



popular is the Baldwin, with 13.4 
per cent of the total crop: followed 
by Ben Davis, 13.3 per cent; North- 
ern Spy, 6.1 per cent; Winesap, .">.! 
per cent; Rhode Island Greening, 
4.7 per cent, and Jonathan, with 3.6 
per cent of the total crop. The total 
production of apples in the United 
States was considerably less in 1915 
than in 1914, the difference being 
over 8,000,000 barrels, which is al- 
most exactly the difference between 
the production in 191 1 and 1915 In 
New York State. 

Peaches 
Tinted States orchards produce 
64,218,000 bushels of peaches. The 
farm price per bushel averages 81.1 
cents, making the total peach crop 
..f the United states $52,080,798 in 
value. California leads in the peach 
production with 9,768,000 bushels. 
followed by Arkansas witb 5,940,000 
and Georgia witb .-...",:;( >.(mki bushels. 

77o/).s 
According to 1913 statistics the 
principal bop producing countries 



of the world grew 173,937,000 pounds 
of bops. Of this quantity the Tinted 
states produced 62,898,000 pounds. 
The following year, 1914, the hop 
production in the United States 
dropped to 43,415,000 pounds. As 
might be expected, Germany, if not 
the loader, is very close to the front 
in the production of this herb, be- 
ing responsible (1!)14) for 55,227,- 
ooo pounds. The United Kingdom 
produced 1. .".on. i ii to pounds more than 




TOMATO PLANTS TRAINED ON TWINE 
TRELLISES 



56 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Germany. No 1915 figures for imps 
are as ye1 available. 

Brans 

Beans, a universal food, are grown 
all over the world. The world's 

bean crop is enormous, but available 
statistics are too scattering, even in 
the largest bean producing countries. 
to have any .meat degree of accu- 
racy. The Tinted States has no 
official figures for beans later than 
1912, which were issued by the cen- 
sus office. In that year 11,145,000 
bushels of beans were grown. Aus- 
tria-Hungary beats this production 
by almost 50 per cent, growing 2<>.- 
445,000 bushels; France produces 
9,354,000 bushels (1014), Italy 16,- 
997,000 (1914) and European Rus- 
sia 12,717,000 (1913) bushels. The 
price of beans in the United States 
in 1915 fluctuated between $2.15 and 
$6.40 per bushel. 

Peas 
One million three hundred and 
two thousand acres in 1912 was the 
area devoted to the production of 



pens in the United States. There 
are no later official figures. The 
1012 production was 7,110,000 bush- 




FIELD OF SUGAR BEETS 

els. comparing not at all with Euro- 
pean Russia, which in the same year 
produced 32,128,000 bushels, or even 
with Spain, which produced 9,885,- 
000 bushels, although the Spanish 
figures for peas include chick peas. 
lentils and vetches. 




S0UTHD0WNS IN PASTURE 



58 



nl K < <tl X 1IC V AND ITS RESOURCES 



Sugar 
Sugar beets and sugar cane form 
a very important industry in the 
United States, there being <i7 fac- 
tories engaged in the production of 
beel sugar from beets. These fac- 
tories produce 862,800 short tons of 
sugar, chiefly refined. Six hundred 
and twenty-four thousand acres are 
devoted to the production of sugar 
beets, each acre yielding an aver- 
age of I'M short tons of beets, so 



sugar heets, whereas in all Europe 
the total devoted to heets was 
5,502,200 acres (1913). It is. there- 
fore, not surprising to note that 
Europe's production of sugar from 
heets iii 1913 was Cl.T74.4lM) tons 
againsl the five and one half million 
of the United States. Louisiana is 
the cane sugar center. In 1!>14. the 
last year for which statistics are 
available, 14!> factories produced 
242,700 short tons of sugar from 




SMUDGE POTS 



that 6,462,000 tons were utilized. 
Sugar heets average $5.54 per ton. 
The principal refineries are located 
in ( 'alifornia (lit. < !olorado (14), 
Idaho i 1 1, Michigan 1 15), < >hio (4) 
and Utah (8). 

The United States is by no means 
the world Leader in beel sugar, Aus- 
tria-Hungary producing over l.7<x>,- 
000 and Germany 2,755,750 short 
ions, in the United states, accord- 
ing to 191 » figures, a total of 183,- 
100 acres were devoted to growing 



3,199,000 short tons of sugar cane. 
The average yield of cane per acre 
in Louisiana was 15 tons, a loss of 
two ions from the unusually luxuri- 
ant production in 1913, 17 tons to 
the acre. 

The Hawaiian Islands have 4t! 
factories, which average 183 days 
operation in the year. In 193 1 the 
Hawaiian factories produced 612,0u0 
shorl tons of sugar from the harvest 
of 11i'.7(hi acres. The average yield 
per acre was \:\ short tons, a total 



AGRICULTURE 






AND 










WORLD'S CATTLE RAISING REGIONS 




WORLDS SHEEP RAISING REGIONS 



uu 



in R COT NTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 







( VTTLE STATIST!! !S 








Milch Cows 


Other Cattle 


Jan. 1 


X umber 


Price 

per 
head 

Jan. 1 


Farm value 
Jan. i 


X umber 


Price 

per 
head 

Jan. 1 


Farm value 
Jan. 1 


1 867 .... 
L876. . . . 
1886. . . . 
1896. . . . 
1906. . . . 
L916 


8.349,000 
1 1 ,085,000 
14. 235. 00(1 
16,138 000 
19,794,000 
21,988,000 


si's 7 1 
25 . 61 
27.40 
22 55 
29.44 
53.90 


S239.947.000 
283,879,000 
389 986,000 
363.956,000 
582 789,000 

1,185,119,000 


11.731.000 
16,785,000 
31.275,000 
32,085,000 
17,068,000 
39,453.000 


$15 79 
17.00 
21.17 
15 86 
15 85 
33.49 


S185.254.000 
285,387,000 

661.956.000 

508,928,000 

746.172000 

1,321,135,000 




CHURNING BUTTER IN A CO-OPERATIVE CREAMERY— INSERT SHOWS A 
MODERN MILK-MAID 



product! £ 4,900,000 shorl tons 

of cane. The Hawaiian cane is ex- 
tremely rich, requiring bul a single 
short ton of cane to produce 250 
pounds of sugar, an average yield of 
10,86] pounds of sugar per acre of 
cane 



LIVE STOCK 

Horses and Mules 

Increase in numbers of horses and 

mules on United Stales farms has 

fully kept pace with the increase in 

population. The census of 1870 

showed 7,145,370 horses and 1,125,- 



12 



(il K COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



U5 mules in the United States, The 
estimated Dumber for L916, based on 
the best available statistics, is 21,- 
166,000 horses and 4,565,000 mules. 
The average value of a farm horse 
in 1870 was $67.43. To-day it is 
$101.60. The average price of a 



For instance, the average price per 

head for horses in the Chicago Horse 
Market in 1914 was $208 for a 
drafter, $483 for a carriage team. 
$169 for drivers. $160 for general 

horses. sls4 for saddle horses, and 
so on. These figures represent a con- 



KAKM PRODUCT CARRIED AS FREIGHT IX THE UNITED STATES. 1912-1914 





Year ending .June 30 


Product 


1912 


1913 


1914 


Animal mat ter: 


Short tons 
14,147,000 


Short tons 
15,042,000 


Short tons 
14,811,000 






Packing-house products 


2,346.000 
1.139.000 

2,360,000 


2,407,000 
1, 121,000 

2.345.0(H) 


2,283.000 




1,081,000 


Other packing-house products 


2,375.000 


Total packing-house products 


5,845,000 


5,873,000 


5.739.000 


Poult rv (including game and flshi 

Wool 


768,000 

407,000 

3,807,000 


847.000 

398,000 

4,286,000 


915,000 
409.000 




5,264.000 








24.974,000 


26,446,000 


27,138,000 






Vegetable matter: 
( iotton 


4.953,000 
12,880,000 


3,942.000 
16.099.000 


4,141,000 




16,795.000 






drain and grain products 


39,299,000 

8,629.000 
7,081,000 


50,945,000 

9,523,000 
7,830.000 


16,015,000 


( irain products — 

Flour 


9:697.000 




7,824,000 






Total grain and grain products 


55.009.000 


68.29S.000 


63,536,000 


Hay 


6, S2S. ooo 

3,233.000 

982,000 

10. 125. 000 


7.145.000 
3,599,000 

1.091 .000 

9, 193,000 


7,319,000 




3,926,000 




1.071 .000 




9,338.000 


Total egetable matter 


94,010.000 


109.667 OOO 


106.126.000 




118,984,000 


136,113,000 


133,264,000 







farm mule in isvo was $90. 12. To 
day it is Si 13.87. The total value 
of all horses in 1870 was $556,251,- 
000. To-day it is $2,150,468,000. 
Mules were valued in 1870 at $106,- 
1:54.000. To-day their value runs in 
c :cess of $519,820,000. 

The average price of any coin 
modify for the whole United states 
is seldom equal to 1 be market price 
as paid in any of I he greal markets. 



siderable Increase in recent years, 
Chicago prices for 1901 being $157 
for drafters. $400 for carriage team. 
$137 for drivers, $102 for horses for 
general work and $1 I" for saddle 
horses. 

Iowa farms possess more horses 
than any other state, having 1,584, 
()(K). Illinois comes next with 1,452,- 
000, then Texas with 1,180,000, with 
Kansas, .Montana and Nehraska 



s> 



a> ^ 



as. 




ui 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




WORLDS PRODUCTIONS OF HIDES AND SKINS 




WORLDS DAIRY PRODUCTION 



AGRICULTURE 



65 



next, all having more than 1,000,000. 
Texas easily leads in the possession 
of mules with 753,000. Montana fol- 
lows with 329,000 and Georgia has 
309,000. 

Texas, of course, is the great cat- 
tle State. Nineteen sixteen figures 
give the Lime Star ranges 1,119,000 
milch cows and 5,428,000 other cat- 
tle. Iowa follows with 1,391,000 
milch cows and 2,737,000 other cat- 
tle. Illinois, Wisconsin and Minne- 
sota are all among the greatest 
cattle States, the stock on farms out- 
numbering even the great herds in 
more strictly cattle States, such as 
Oklahoma is popularly supposed to 
be with its 1,688,000 head. 

Sheep 

Sheep, like cattle, are valued not 
only for their meat but for wool 
and hide. United States sheep total 
49,162,000. The average price per 
head is .$5.17, making the total farm 
value $254,348,000 for all the sheep 
in the United States. Wyoming, the 
great sheep State, leads with a herd 
of 4.388.000, followed by Montana 
with 3,941,000, New Mexico with 
3,440,000, Idaho with 3,102,000 and 



Ohio with 3,067,000. While this 
enormous herd roams the Western 
plains and Eastern farms 36,000,698 
fleeces are marketed, the average 
weight of which is 6.78 pounds, the 
total product in the raw state being 
228,777,000 pounds of wool. 

Swine 

Farms of the United States pos- 
sess a herd of 68,047,000 swine, the 
average price of which is $8.40 per 
head, or a total farm value of $571,- 
890,000 for pork alone. Iowa is the 
great pork State of the Union, av- 
eraging in 1916. 9,069,000 hogs and 
pigs of all kinds, followed by Mis- 
souri, Illinois, Nebraska and Indiana, 
all over 4,000,000 each. 

RESUME 

The space at hand forbids an ex- 
tension of this brief survey of a 
part of the agricultural wealth of 
the United States. Perhaps no one 
set of figures can show in more suc- 
cinct manner the extent of the farm- 
ing activities of this country than 
the table on page 62 of our agricul- 
tural products carried on railroads 
and therefore marketed. 




CHAPTEE IV. 
THE FISH WE EAT 

By RALSTON MOORE 



THE last report of the United 
States Census dealing with the 
fishing industries of the United 
States is that of 190S. The next 
report will he in 1918. The 190S 
figures, given below, are therefore 
only authoritative in giving a com- 
parison between the various pisca- 
torial products of our waters and 
cannot be accepted too literally 
even there, as the past eight years 
have seen many changes in some of 
the industries. 



ture, but detailed figures of certain 
other fish industries are available 
through the work of the Bureau of 
Fisheries. 

The greatest fishing industry of 
the Atlantic Coast is conducted by 
the fleets centering at Boston and 
Gloucester. Three hundred and 
ninety-three vessels were in these 
fleets in 1914, including sail, gaso- 
line and steam vessels. 

There were 7,598 trips made by 
these vessels, landing at both ports 




FROZEN HALIBUT IN STOKE AT 
SEATTLE 



CLEANING THE FISH ON A STEAM 
HALIBUT FISHERMAN 



The most imi>ortant sea food in- 
dustry in the United States is un- 
questionably the oyster industry. 
No product of the water has a 
greater nutritive value and none is 
more readily caught and sold than 
this shell fish. No statistics, how- 
ever, later than those of the census 
of 190S are available for oyster cul- 



162,589,220 pounds of fish, valued al 
$4,395,030. This shows a decrease 
in the number of trips from the pre- 
vious year of 1.231. an increase in 
the catch of 37l\434 pounds, but a 
decrease in the value of $587,987. 



In 1914. 57.754.12S pounds of bud- 



Copyright by Muim & Co., Inc. 



68 



OUR C(il \ | |;v AND ITS RESOURCES 



PRODUCTS OF THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES: 1908. 



Species. Pounds. 

AJewives 89,978,000 

Black bass 3,313,000 

Bluefish 7,647,000 

Bream or Sunfish 4,738,000 

Buffalo fish 16,729,000 

Butterfish 6.855,000 

Carp, German 42,763,000 

Catfish 17,817,000 

Cod 109,453,000 

Croaker 8,143,000 

Cusk 6,344.000 

Drum, fresh-water 6,532,000 

Drum, salt-water 4,576,000 

Eels 3,358,000 

Flounders 23,346,000 

Haddock 59,987,000 

Hake 34,340,000 

Halibut 34,441,000 

Herring 125,050,000 

Herring (lake) 41,118.000 

Mackerel 12, 103,000 

Menhaden 394,776,000 

Mullet 33,703,000 

Perch, white 2,412,000 

Perch, yellow 7,S9S,000 

Pike and P'ekerel 2,959,000 

Pike perc'. 15,247,000 

Pollock 29,462,000 

Pompar c- 570,000 

Rockfi r. 2,454,000 

Saline n 90,417,000 

Scup 8,414,01 10 

Sea brtss 6,352,000 

Shad 27,64 1 ,1 H H I 

Smelt 4,340,000 

Snapper, red 13.49S.000 

Spanish mackerel 3,806,000 

Squeteague 49,869,000 

Striped bass 3,657, I 

Sturgeon 2,072.000 

Suckers 8,555,000 

Swordfish 2,71 1,000 

Trout 12.024.000 

Whitefish 7. 7-'-', mho 

Lobsters 15,270. 000 

Shrimp 14.374,000 

(lams, hard 7,805,000 

( lams, soft 8,654,000 

Oysters 233,309,000 

Mussel shells 81,869,000 

Pearls and slugs 

Terrapin 368,000 

I urtles 1,088,000 

Sponges 622,000 

Alligator hides 372,000 

Mink skins 22,000 

Muskrat skins 1 19,000 

i Itter skins 7,600 

\\ halebone 63,000 

Scallops . 2,41 l.ooo 

' >il, sperm 3,391,000 

Oil, whale 573,000 

Irish moss 772,000 



Dollars. 

589.000 
255.000 
506,000 
120,000 
498,000 
237,000 

1,135,000 
785,000 

2.903.C00 
226,000 
105,000 
154,000 
154.000 

588,000 
1,308,000 

464,000 

1,562,000 

796.000 

9S9.000 

S4S.000 

893,000 

908,000 

137,000 

258,000 

174,000 

580,000 

402,000 

71.000 

66,000 

3,347,000 

290,000 

284,000 

2,113,000 

174.000 

194,000 

1.776.000 
314,000 

L57, 

215.000 
198,000 

M 10.000 

524.000 

1.931,000 

390, 

1. SI 7. 000 

553, i 

15,7 13. 000 
392,000 
300,000 

M 1.000 

40,000 



54.".. 000 
(i 1.000 
89.000 

136,000 

30.000 

215,000 

317.000 

252,000 

30,000 

2'».000 



The total quantity and value of the products of the fisl eries of the United States including 
the items mentioned above and all other fish products was 1,893,454,000 pounds, valued at 
$54,031,000. No later figures are available at time of publication. Iu many cases there 
was an increase, in other cases a decrease. 




FISH EGG CAR OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES 




INTERIOR OF FISH COMMISSION CAR, WITH BERTH LET DOWN 



70 



OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



dock were Landed, valued at $1,381, 
156. This was Mil increase in the 
Dumber of pounds Landed during the 
previous year by over four million, 
but a decrease of $100,000 in value. 

POLLOCK 

Pollock lisb. which are caughl 
with purse seines, yielded a less 
number of pounds and value in 193 I 
than 1913, the I'.M I catch being 12,- 
454,723 pounds, valued at $199,736. 

sw OKDFISH 

Swordfish were less plentiful in 
1914 than several years previously. 
American fishing vessels landed at 
Boston and Gloucester in 1914 
L,499,844 pounds of fresh swordfish, 
valued at $177,669. 

COD 

Cod is among the most important 
fish; it is marketed both fresh and 
salt, and as cod and scrod, the latter 
being from one to two and one half 



pounds in weight. The total catch 
of all kinds landed .-it Boston and 
Gloucester was. in 1!)14. fresh cod, 
36,079,873 pounds, valued at $917,- 
908; salted cod, 11,449,757 pounds, 
valued at $411,508. 



Newfoundland herring landed al 
Boston, Gloucester and other New 
England ports during the season of 
1914 and the first part of 1915 
amounted approximately to 2,570,- 
352 pounds of fresh frozen fish, and 
49,166 barrels, amounting to 11,071.- 
584 pounds, of salted herring. 

HALIBUT 

Halibut valued at $246,000 for 
3,063,000 pounds, and salted halibut 

to the amount of 316,000 pounds, 
valued at $30,000, was packed dur- 
ing the year. 

CUSK 
Cusk yielded 5,747,053 pounds 




A ROUGH MOKNING ON THE HALIBUT BANKS. LANDING A SMALL CATCH 



THE FISH WE EAT 



fresh, valued at $99,000, and salted, 
111,937 pounds, valued at $3,200. 



Hake was caught to the amount 
of 7,404,335 pounds, valued at .$146,- 
030, and salted to the amount of 
222,033 pounds, valued at .$4,218. 

LOBSTERS 

Lobsters are caught from Lewes. 
Del., to the tip of Maine, and pro- 
vide 12,207.017 pounds of sea food 
annually (1913), valued at $2,394,- 
S22 for 8,832,281 lobsters. The in- 
dustry shows the peculiar and 
anomalous condition of a steadily 
decreasing output and a steadily in- 
creasing profit to those engaged. In 
twenty-four years' time the yearly 
catch has decreased by more than 
18,000,000 pounds, or 60 per cent, 
while the fisherman's receipts have 
increased by a million and a half 



dollars, or 178 per cent. In L880 
the lobster brought an average of 
.024 cents a pound. In 1913 lobsters 
averaged .191 cents per pound, nearly 
ten times as much as in 1880 and 
two and a half times as much as 
in l!)O0. 

ALASKAN 

The 1914 season saw the Alaska 
fishing industry at its height of 
value. It afforded employment to 
21,200 persons and included the in- 
vestment of $37,000,000. The total 
value of the products of the Alaskan 
fishers is estimated at $2L2*3,0u0, 
an advance of over $5,500,0o0 over 
1913, due largely to an unusual 
abundance of red salmon and the 
higher prices commanded by canned 
salmon. 

SEAL 

The fur seal service reports from 
the Pribilof Islands a satisfactory 




FISH CULTURAL STATION, B0ZEMAN, MONTANA 



72 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



condition of the seal herd. A com- 
plete census of the seals shows L!94.- 

f,s7. ail increase of nearly L!7.<MHi 
animals over the year 1913. The 
L915 census has not yet been com- 
pleted but indicates an increase of 
60,000 animals over 1014. 

M l SSEL 

The Bureau Of Fisheries has been 
conducting a general canvass of 
fresh-water mussel fishing, which 
ha:, been in progress for several 



with supervision of propagation and 
distribution of food and game fishes 
and scientific investigations into all 

matters pertaining to tisli. In 1914 
the enormous quantity of 44i88,757,- 
^<H» tish and ova were distributed. 
The greater proportion of this, of 
course, was egg and not tish. but 
fingerling, yearling and adult tish 
numbered over 58,000,000, an in- 
crease of 150 per cent over 1914. 
Of this number, salmon, trout and 
bass contributed the larger part. 




SPAWNING TROUT AT NEOSHO, 
HATCHERY 



MO., 



FISH CULTURAL STATION, WYTHE- 
VILLE, VA. 



years on the streams inland. The 
canvass covered in 1914 included 
tributaries to the Great Lakes and 
the Ohio anil Mississippi Rivers. 
Three thousand nine hundred and 
fifty-two persons were engaged in 
taking mussels in the streams under 
consideration and in preparing them 
for the market The mussel fisher- 
ies hail an output of '_'::. .'117 tons of 
shells, valued at $382,210, and yield- 
ed pearls worth $164,261. The shells 
are used iii the ma nufact lire of pearl 
buttons. 

Bl BEAT] OP Fisii i BEES 

The Bureau <»f Fisheries of the 

Department of Commerce is charged 



Perhaps nothing in the work ><( 
the bureau is more spectacular than 

its development of a new tish indus- 
try — the catching and marketing of 
tile tish. This edible and nutritive 
lish was practically unknown in the 
market prior to October of 1915. 
Beginning with November. 1915, and 
up to August, 1916, 6,938,000 pounds 
of tile lish have been taken and mar- 
keted for $255,000. So rapidly did 
the tish impress consumers with its 
value that the July. 191b. catch was 
over 1400 per cent greater than that 
of the previous November. 

Fish cultural work was conducted 
in thirty two Slates and the terri 
torv of Alaska. Distributions oc- 



THE FISH WE EAT 



73 



curred in every State and Territory 
of the Union. The greater part of 
the output is planted in public 
waters, either on the initiative of 
the Fish Commission or on the 
recommendation of State authority, 
although fishes adapted for ponds, 
small lakes and minor interior 
waters are usually consigned on in- 
dividual application. 

Fish cultural operations were con- 
ducted during the year at fifty 
permanent hatcheries and seventy- 
six sub-hatcheries, auxiliaries and 
egg-collecting stations. These va- 
rious stations and sub-stations are 
located along the Atlantic rivers for 
salmons, trout, white perch and 
yellow perch; the Pacific rivers for 
salmons and steelhead trout; on the 
Great Lakes for whitefish, cisco. 
lake trout and pike perch; on 
various interior waters for bass, 
sunfish, carpies, trout, and on the 
Atlantic Coast for cod, haddock, pol- 
lock, flounder and lobster. 

An important branch of the Bu- 
reau of Fisheries operations is in 
the rescue of young food fishes from 
lakes and bayous formed by the 
overflow of the Mississippi and Illi- 
nois Rivers and their tributaries. 
During 1915 operations of this char- 
acter yielded 8,357,000 fish, which is 
approximately 90 per cent of the 
food fishes which would otherwise 
have perished through drought or 
"air drowning" when the overflow 
dried up, or from cold later in the 
year if not rescued. 

The Bureau of Fisheries has six 
railroad cars especially arranged 
for the transportation of live fish 
During the year ending June 30, 
1915, the distribution of fish, eggs, 
etc., by the bureau amounted to 
536,260,143 eggs, 3,694,^81,699 fry 
and 58.215,692 fingerlings, yearlings 
and adults. These went to Fish 
Commissions in twenty-eight differ 
ent States, to waters needing stock, 
from the controllers of which re- 
quests had been made to the bureau, 



and to private persons asking for 
fish for streams, lakes or ponds. 
While in special instances some fish 
or eggs are sent by special messen- 
ger, by far the greater part was sent 
out by means of the bureau's special 
fish and egg transportation cars. 

The Bureau of Fisheries has been 
investigating and encouraging wher- 
ever possible the establishment of 
the home fish ponds and in every 
way possible places its accumulated 
experience at the disposal of per- 
sons interested in the establishment 




THESE MEN WITH MILK CANS ACT 
SUSPICIOUSLY, BUT THEY ARE ONLY 
DEPOSITING FISH IN A STREAM 

of fish ponds for the purpose of 
supplying fish for the table. It is 
impossible, adequately, to convey an 
idea of the scope of operations of 
the Bureau of Fisheries in the short 
space available here Those inter- 
ested should communicate with the 
Commissioner of Fisheries, Bureau 
of Fisheries, Department of Com- 
merce, Washington, DC 




A FOREST RANGER AT HIS FIRE LOOKOUT STATION IN THE TOP OF A YELLOW 
PINE. MT. SHASTA IN THE BACKGROUND. A TELEPHONE AT THE FOOT OF 
THE TREE CONNECTS WITH THE SUPERVISOR'S OFFICE 



CHAPTEB V. 
FORESTS AND FORESTRY 

TIMBER SUPPLY 



By RICHARDSON DAVENPORT 



TIMBER standing in the United 
States amounts to nearly 
2,900,000,000,000 board feet, of 
which three fourths (about 2,200,- 
000,000,000 board feet) is privately 
owned and 21 per cent (600,000,- 
000,000) is conserved in national 
forests. The remaining 4 per cent 
is otherwise publicly owned by States 
or municipalities. 

Fire accounts for the animal de- 
struction of 12,000,000,000 board 



the original stand of timber in the 
United States is calculated to have 
been 5,200,000,000^000 feet, covering 
800,000,000 acres. Nearly half the 
country's timber is in the Pacific 
Northwest, a fourth of it is in the 
Southern Pine region, and the bal- 
ance in the Lake region and scat- 
tered in the Eastern States. 

Most of the national forests are 
in the mountains of the West, fol- 
lowing in general the Rocky Mou" 




The Trees of Future Forests 



Sowing Tree Seeds 

THE GOVERNMENT HAS 34,000,000 LITTLE TREES WHICH WILL BE USED TO PLANT 
DENUDED AREAS ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS 



feet, and waste as much more. 
Many saws waste as much as they 
cut. and stumps, slashing and slabs 
account for a tremendous loss. It 
is probable, although not computable 
accurately, that tires and waste use 
more lumber than is cut yearly, a 
statement borne out by the fact that 



tains and Pacific Coast ranges from 
Washington. Idaho and Montana to 
southern California. Arizona and 
New Mexico. A few are in Arkan- 
sas. Florida, Nebraska. Michigan, 
Minnesota. Alaska and Porto Pic... 
states which have set aside forest 
rcvoives of their own are California. 



Copyright by Munn & <"<>., Inc. 



7<; 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Connecticut, Indiana, Maryland. 
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne- 
sota. New Hampshire, New Jersey. 
New York. Pennsylvania, South Da- 
kota. Vermont and Wisconsin. 



SHUT IN* LUMBER PRODUCTION 

A careful comparison of computed 

production for 1915 as against re- 
ported production for 1914 reveals 
changes which lumber cutting is 



1915 LUMBER CUT BY SPECIES, WITH VALUE 



K i n i) of Wood 



Probable Total 
Board Feet 



Value, per M 
Board Feet 



Yellow Pine 

Douglas fir 

Oak 

White pine 

Hemlock 

Spruce 

Western yellow pine 

Cypress 

Maple 

Red gum 

Chestnut 

"ill 1 1 iw poplar 

Redwood 

Cedar 

Birch 

Larch 

Beech 

Basswood 

Elm 

Ash 

Cottonwood 

Tupelo 

White fir 

Sugar pine 

Balsam fir 

Hickory 

Walnut 

Lodgepole pine .... 

Sycamore 

All other kinds 

Total 



,700, 
,431, 

.970, 
.700, 
,275, 
,400, 
.293 
,100 
900, 
655 
490 
464, 
420 
420 
415 
375 
360 
260, 
210 
190 
180, 
170 
125 



000,000 

249.000 
000.000 
000.000 
000.000 

III III, 11(111 
985.000 

000.000 
000.000 
000,000 
000,000 
000,000 
294.000 
000,000 
000.000 
000,000 
000.000 
000.000 
000.000 
000,000 
000.000 
000,000 

IMS. 0(111 



117,701,000 



100 
100 
90, 
26, 
25, 
49, 



ooo.oi K) 
000.000 
000,000 

JSfi.000 

000,000 
531.000 



SI 2 .-,0 

111 50 

10 (III 

Is on 

13 oo 
16.50 
14.50 

20 00 

15 on 
12 .",(> 
16.00 

22 50 
13.50 
15.50 

16 50 

11 .00 

14 00 

19 00 
17.00 

22.50 

17 50 
12.00 

1 1 . 00 

17.50 

to 
18.50 
1 1.00 

23 50 

13.00 
14.00 



37,013,294,000 



ANNUAL i I 1 

Reliable but not absolutely accu- 
rate figures Of lumber production 
are furnished by the Forest Service 
of the United stales government. 
Based <>n the reports from 16,428 
lumber mills, the 1915 cut is esti- 
mated to have been 37,013,294,000 
board feet, with a possible maximum 
of 38,000,000,000 board feet. A 
•board foot" is L2 by P_* by 1 inch. 
Forty per cent of i oe cut was South- 
ern yellow pine, three times the 
amount of I >OUglas fir, second in 
quantity cut. But three other 

woods, oak. white pine and fir, were 

cut in excess of 2,000,000,000 feet 




ON THE FIRING LINE. FIGHTING 
GROUND FIRE 



FORESTS AND FORESTRY 



77 



t915 AND 1914 PRODUCTION OF LUMBER BY STATES REPORTED BY MILLS 
CUTTING 50,000 AND OVER 



States 



Washington 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

North Carolina 

Arkansas 

Texas 

Oregon 

Alabama 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

California (incl. Nev.) 

Florida 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

West Virginia 

Maine 

Georgia 

Pennsylvania 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Idaho 

Kentucky 

New Hampshire 

New York 

Ohio 

Missouri 

Indiana 

Montana 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Oklahoma 

Maryland 

Illinois 

Connecticut 

Colorado 

Arizona 

New Mexico 

New Jersey 

Iowa 

Delaware 

South Dakota 

Wyoming 

Rhode Island 

Utah 

Kansas and Nebraska. 



Totals . 



Increase 



Decrease 
Per Cent 



+ 

- 1 
+ 

- 6 
+ 
+12 

- 7 
+ 
+ 

-13 
-14 
+ 3 

- 9 
-16 

- 1 
+ 

- 2 
+ 9 
+ 14 

- 9 
+ 1 

- 6 
+ 3 

- 2 
+39 

- 5 
+17 
+ 3 
+ 4, 
+74, 
+ 14. 
+ 1. 
+66. 
+ 9. 
-22. 

- 3. 
+15. 
-17. 

+205. 

- 2. 
+27. 
+46. 

- 5. 
+25. 



1915 

Computed 

Total 
Production 

M ft. 



3,950,000 

3,900,000 

2,300,000 

2,090,000 

1,800,000 

1,750,000 

1,690,000 

1,500,000 

1,500,000 

1,210,000 

1,130,000 

1,110,000 

1,100,000 

1,100,000 

1,100,000 

1 ,00(1, 00(1 

1,000,000 

950,000 

800,000 

800,000 

777,000 

560,000 

500,000 

475,000 

400,000 

350,000 

350,000 

328,000 

260,000 

250,000 

230,000 

165,000 

110,000 

90,000 

79,500 

75,915 

65,787 

40,000 

35,000 

25,000 

23,000 

17,400 

15,000 

10,892 



37,013,294 



1914 
Reported 

Production* 

M ft, 



3,946.189 
3,956,434 

2,280,966 

2,227,854 

1,796,780 

1,554,005 

1,817,875 

1,494,732 

1,488,070 

1,391,001 

1,318,065 

1,073,821 

1,214,435 

1,312,230 

1,118,480 

992,594 

1,026,191 

804,710 

701,540 

885,035 

763,508 

596,392 

482,744 

486,195 

286,063 

370,571 

298,571 

317,842 

249,608 

143,094 

200,594 

162,097 

66,227 

81,883 

102,117 
78,667 
57,167 
48,748 
11,443 
25,517 
18,744 
11,852 
15,902 
8,680 
790 



37,340,023 



'* Quinquennial census of manufacturers — custom mills excluded 
** Mills reporting cut less than 50,000 each 



producing in the location of prin- 
cipal supplies. During the year 
Washington rose from second place 
to first in lumber production, Louisi- 
ana dropped from first to second 
place, Oregon fell from fifth place 
to seventh, Florida climbed from 
fifteenth place to twelfth and Minne- 
sota dropped from eleventh place to 
fourteenth. 



LOCALITIES OF VARIOUS SPECIES 

The principal varieties of lumber 
and the States in which they grow 
are listed on page 80, the order of the 
names of States being according to 
their rank in growing the particular 
variety of lumber under which they 
are classified. 

LATHS AM) SHINGLES 

From the reports of mills and the 



FORESTS AM) FORESTRY 



total number of mills and their 
capacity, a comparatively accurate 
figure of total cut can be obtained. 
But it is not possible accurately to 
estimate what proportion of the out- 
put of unreporting mills may he in 
lath and shingles. Hence the fol- 
lowing figures are confined strictly 
to reports and are not estimates. 
As the lath cut increased slightly 
and the shingle cut decreased de- 
cidedly since 1912, the last previous 
year for which lath and shingle 
figures are available, they are given 
for comparison. 

In 1915 mills reporting showed a 
lath cut of 2.794.301.000 as against 
2,719,163,000 in 1912. In 1915 mills 
reporting showed a shingle cut of 
8,483,579,000 against 12,037.685,000 
in 1912. 

Louisiana produced most laths in 
1915. with 433,176.0<)0. forging ahead 
of Washington, leader in 1912. 
Washington produced most shingles 



1915 XLMIUiK, CUT BY Sl'KCIES 



.IONS BOARD FEET 



COTTONWOOD 



LODGEPOLE =>" 
3VCAN10RE 
ALL OTHERS 




REGULATED VS. UNREGULATED CUTTING 
The private lands are stripped, while the adjoining government forests are conserved 



so 



ill I! COrXTIJY AMI ITS UKSnl |;iT.S 



in 1915. with a cut of 6,313,335,000, 
more than fifteen times as many as 
any other state, hut dropping by a 
billion and a half under its figures 
for 1912. 

BOX MANUFACTURE 

The largest users of lumber in the 
United states, excluding builders 
and millwrights utilizing lumber Cor 
products used iii construction work, 
are the box manufacturers. Statis- 
tics for 1912 are the most recenl 
ones available. According to these. 
1,547,973,1S0 hoard feet are used 
annually in the production of boxes, 



and machines, growers of fruit, ber- 
ries and vegetables. Crates are 
used in Large quantities by shippers 
of furniture, hardware, machinery 
and stone: also for fruit 

CROSSTIES 

Railroads made a tremendous de- 
mand on the lumber market for 
crossties and poles. No more recent 
statistics than those of 1010 are 
available as to crossties. but in that 
year nearly 149,000,000 ties were 
used. Because a tie must be selected 
for durability, spike-holding power, 
resistance to mechanical wear and 



LOCALITIES OF VARIOUS SPECIES 



Species 



States Listed in Order of Rank 



Yellow pine 



1 >ouglas fir. 
White pine . 



Oak . 



Hemlock .... 
Western pine. 

Spruce 

< Jypress 



Maple 

Redwood. 
Red gum 



Larch and tamarack 
Yellow poplar 



< iedar 

Birch 

Sugar pine 
Basswood 

Beecb 

Elm 

< Jol tonwood 



Louisiana Mississippi, Texas. North Carolina. Alabama, 
Arkansas. Florida, Yirginia, Georgia, South Carolina, 
Oklahoma 

Washington, Oregon. California. Idaho. Montana 

Minnesota, Idaho. Maine, New Hampshire, Wisconsin. Mass- 
achusetts, Michigan 

West Virginia, Kentucky. Tennessee. Arkansas Virginia, 
Ohio. Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Missouri, Mississippi, 
Indiana. Louisiana 

Wisconsin. Michigan. Washington, Pennsylvania, West Yir- 
ginia. New York. Maine. Oregon 

California, Idaho. Oregon, Washington, Montana. Arizona, 
New Mexico, Ne\ ada 

Maine, Washington. New Hampshire, West Virginia, Vermont. 
Oregon, New York, Minnesota. Massachusetts 

Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Arkansas, Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri 

Michigan, Wisconsin 

t California 

Arkansas. Mississippi. Louisiana. South Carolina. Missouri. 
Tennessee, North Carolina, Kentucky 

Montana, Idaho, Minnesota. Wisconsin, Michigan. Wash- 
ington, Oregon 

w,st Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, 
Ohio 

Washington, Idaho. California, Oregon 

Wisconsin, Michigan 

< California 

Wisconsin. Michigan 

Michigan, Indiana 

Wisconsin. Michigan 

Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana 



crates and other containers. Sixty- 
nine per cent of this amount is soft 
wood and ::i hardwood. The total 
amount in 1912 was IV, per cent of 
the total cut. 

Leading box consumers are manu- 
facturers of oil. packing-house prod- 
ucts, canned goods, groceries and 
tobacco, clothing and dry goods, the 
manufacturers of hardware, tinware 



reasonableness of price, there are 
but few woods which are chosen by 
railroads. The principal ones and 
their popularity by both steam and 
electric roads are shown in the table 
on page 82. 

Pol I s 

Railroads, trolley lines, telephone 
and telegraph companies consume 
large quantities of lumber yearly in 



FORESTS AND FORESTRY 



si 




NATURAL IORi.br R.fc.LrI0NS OF NORTH AMERICA 



82 



<>IK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



< ROSSTIKS II K< II VSKD, RY CLASSES OF RAILROADS PURCHASING, AND 

KINDS OF WOOD 



] 9 1 



Wood 



All kinds .... 

< >ak 

Southern pine 
I louglas fir . . 
Chestnul 

< !edar 

Cypress 

Tamarack 
Western pine 
Hemlock .... 
Redwood 

Gum 

All other. . . . 



Total 



1 18,231,000 

68,382,000 

26,264,000 

1 1,629,000 

7,760,000 

7,305,000 

5,396,000 

5,163,000 

4,612,000 

3,468,000 

2,165.(10(1 

1.621,000 

4,466.000 



Purchased 

by steam 
railroads 



139 
65 



596,000 
095,000 

096. 000 
919.00(1 
2 HI. (It Ml 
6:57,00(1 

187,000 
960,000 

527. 000 
442.000 

501,000 

621.000 

392,000 



Purchased 
by electric 
railroads 



635,000 
287,000 
168,000 
710,000 

54 1.000 
668,000 
209.000 
203,000 
85.000 

26.(10(1 

664,000 

74, i 




25 30 35 40 AS 50 55 60 65 



KINDS OF WOODS USED FOR RAILROAD CROSSTIES 



purchase and use of polos. In 1011, 
the most recent year for which polo 
statistics have been gathered, 3,418,- 
020 polos were bought by companies 
needing them for immediate use. 
Of this quantity cedar poles were 
the most popular accounting for over 
two million, with chestnut, oak, pine 
.-Hid cypress following in the order 
named. Poles under twenty feet 
long were boughl to the number <>f 
104,728 (largely for rural telegraph 



and telephone lines) : poles between 

twenty and thirty feet, the most 
popular six.e. accounted for 1,861,816 
of the total : bet ween thirty and 
forty feet, 862,219; between forty 
and fifty feet, 217,000, and over fifty 

feel. 72,257. 

wood PRESERVATION 

The art of preserving wood has 
advanced rapidly in recent years 
and the long threatened wood famine 



FORESTS AND FORESTRY 



83 



and tlio consequent higher prices 
have led many large users of wood 
exposed to weather and decay, not- 
ably railroads and telegraph and 
telephone companies, to experiment 
seriously with processes which 
would cut down expense by preven- 
tion of decay. According to statis- 
tics of the American Wood Pre- 
servers' Association, gathered in co- 
operation with the Forest Service, 
in 1915, 102 wood preserving plants 
treated 1 11,858,963 cubic feet of ma- 
terial. The 1914 statistics on wood 
preservation were based on reports 
from ninety-four plants and showed 
a total of 159,582,639 cubic feet 
treated. Although the figures for 
1915 are based on the output of 
eight more plants than are those for 
1914, the amount of wood treated 
in 1915 was less by 17,723,676 cubic 
feet, or 10 per cent. 

A notable increase, amounting to 
1,986,286 cubic feet, was recorded in 
the amount of construction timber 
treated during the year. The num- 



ber of crossties subjected to treat- 
ment in 1915 was 37,085,585, a re- 
duction from 1914 figures of 6,761,- 
402, while the quantity of paving 
material was increased by over 300,- 
000 square yards, or 11 per cent. 
Less than half as many cross-arms 
were treated in 1915 as in the pre- 
vious year, and the quantity of piling 
and miscellaneous timbers treated 
fell below that reported in 1914 by 
1,766,618 and 200,825 cubic feet, re- 
spectively, a decrease of 21 per cent 
and 14 per cent. 

For the treatment of the 141,858,- 
963 cubic feet of material reported 
in 1915 33,269,604 pounds of zinc 
chloride and 80,859,442 gallons of 
creosote were required. In addition 
3,205.563 gallons of paving oil and 
1,693,544 gallons of miscellaneous 
liquid preservatives were consumed. 
In 1914 paving oil was reported 
separately for the first time and 
amounted to 9,429,444 gallons. In 
1915 the treating plants reported 
only 3.205.563 gallons of this heavier 




LOCATING THE FIRE 
A Forest Ranger is using liis compass and map to find out where the fire is 



M 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



oil, or considerably loss than half 
the 1914 consumption. 

NATION AL FORESTS 

The United States holds as na- 
tional forests 155 separate areas in 
the United states, aggregating 184,- 
505,602 acres <>l" land, which includes, 



preservation of the forests. Wood 
is cut and sold, mines are worked. 
water power is developed, sheep and 
eattle are grazed on these lands as 
on any others the difference being 
that in the national forests all ac- 
tivities are under permits and the 
forests therefore under protection. 




KANGER ON FIRE PATROL DUTY ON THE HIGHEST RIDGE OF THE CABINET 
NATIONAL FOREST, MONTANA 



however, 21,732,332 acres of pri 
valelv owned land within national 
foresl borders. The net amounl 
owned by the United states govern- 
inent is thus 162,773,280 acres of 

land. 

Contrary to the general Impres 

-ion. this acreage is not a "reserve" 

indeed, the name "forest reserve" 

gave way to "national forest" to 
correct that Impression. The na- 
tional forests are protected from tire. 
from over-cutting, from exploitation 
indeed, hut they are made to serve 
as large a population as possible 
l>\ permitting their use in every 
possible way consistent with the 




CAUSES OF FOREST FLRES 



FORESTS AND FORESTRY 



Sf> 



The most recent report of the for- 
ester shows that the regular appro- 
priation for 1914 for the Forest 
Service of $5,662,094.13 was not suf- 
ficient, and an emergency appropria- 
tion had to be made largely on ac- 
count of a very dry year and the 
increased necessity for fire protec- 
tion and fire fighting. The national 
forests, however, returned to the 
United States Treasury during the 
fiscal year the sum of $2,481,469.35. 



foregone to sell certain lumber at 
cost; certain free grazing privileges 
were worth in excess of $120,000, 
and other privileges are believed to 
have a market value of $100,000 a 
year. 

During the year 1,093,589,000 
hoard feet of timber was sold. Forty 
thousand and fifteen free-use timber- 
cut permits were issued and 30.610 
permits given for stock grazing. 
One million six hundred and twenty- 



WATKR POWER OX THK NATION" AL FORESTS, JUNE 30, 1915 



Permits 


Transmis- 
sion lines 
only 


Power 
Projects, 
reservoirs, 
conduits, 
and power 
houses 


Estimated 

average 

output of 

stream 

at minimum 

discharge 


Permits in force on June 30, 1915: 
Rental permits 


92 
16 


19 

73 


462,039 


Final 


728,893 




70,628 






Total 


108 

84 
13 


182 

00 

48 


1,261,560 


Constructed or operating on June 30, 1915: 


335,435 




5,841 






Total . . 


97 

1 


108 

15 

11 


341,276 


Under construction June 30, 1915: 


94,313 




1,326 






Total. 


1 

7 
3 


26 

34 

14 


95,639 


Construction not started on June 30, 1915: 


761.184 




63,401 






Total 


10 

is 

2 


48 

21 
13 

13 


824,645 


Applications received July 1, 1914, to 
June 30, 1915: 
Rental permits 




Final 












Total 


20 


47 









These receipts came from timber, 
$1,175,133.95 ; grazing, $1,130,495, 
and special uses, $175,S40.40. 

A much larger showing could be 
made were it not for the generous 
policy of the Government which per- 
mits certain privileges free of 
charge. During the year over $200,- 
000 worth of timber was given away 
free to settlers ; $33,000 of profit was 



seven thousand three hundred and 
twenty-one cattle, 96,933 horses, 
2.792 hogs, 7,232,276 sheep and 51,- 
409 goats were fed in national for- 
ests during the year. Predatory 
animals, including bears, coyotes, 
mountain lions, lynxes, wildcats, 
wolves and wolf pups were destroyed 
to the number of 3,843, the number 
indicating only the kill by forest 



86 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



officers in connection with their 
work. 

Water power permits are shown 
in the table on page 85. 



Fires in national forests are 
guarded against with every possible 
care, but during the year 6,605 tires 
occurred. Of these, 3.253 burned 
less than a quarter of an acre be- 
fore being extinguished, 1,807 burned 
less than ten acres, 988 burned less 
than .$100 worth though more than 
ten acres in extent. 458 tires did 
damage from *lon to $1,000 and 99 
did damage in excess of ten acres 
and si, 000. 

A strict census of fire causes 
shows 16.8 per cent caused by rail- 
roads, 30.77 per cent by lightning, 
Tin per cent by incendiarism, 9.02 
per cent by badly controlled brush- 
burning, 17. Oo per cent by careless 



campers, 1.35 per cent by stationary 
steam engines— sawmills, donkey en- 
gines, etc. — and the balance of 17.89 
per cent miscellaneous and unknown 
causes. 

The fires burned in 1914 225,979 
timber acres. The open area affect- 
ed was 153,686 acres, accounting for 
a loss of timber burned or damaged 
of 339,430,000 board feet. The loss 
of money is estimated to be .$307,303 
for the destroyed timber; reproduc- 
tion destroyed. $192,408, and forage 
loss, $2,803. The service expended 
in fire ti^htinj;, outside of salaries of 
regular officers, $685,790. 



Note. — It is impossible to give 
here minute details of all the activi- 
ties of the Forest Service. Seekers 
for more detailed information can 
readily obtain it by writing to the 
Forest Service. U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 




CHAPTER VI. 



RECLAMATION SERVICE 



By CLAUDE WASHINGTON 



IT is not generally understood 
that the Reclamation Service of 

the United States is primarily a 
"home making" service, nor that it 
does not compete with private enter- 
prise. Such, nevertheless, are the 
facts. Early irrigation in this coun- 
try was entirely a matter of co- 
operative effort or the result of in- 
vestment by private or corporate 
capital, and early laws to encourage 
irrigation of arid lands all contem- 
plated construction financed by other 
than governmental money. 

The increasing difficulty of carry- 
ing out large projects led to the 
passage of the reclamation act, 
which enlists national funds for the 
development of projects not feasible 
by private or State enterprise. 

The projects undertaken involved 
expensive storage works, high diver- 
sion dams, difficult tunnels, or long, 
expensive canal work upon side hills, 



where large investment was neces- 
sary before any water was brought 
to the land. Many projects dis- 
cussed in the early days of reclama- 
tion work were rejected by the 
Reclamation Service because deemed 
within the reach of private invest- 
ment. Some of those same projects 
were later taken up by the Govern- 
ment after years of unsuccessful 
effort to enlist private capital in 
their construction. Practically all 
of the projects undertaken by the 
Reclamation Service had been aban- 
doned after unsuccessful attempts to 
finance them as private projects, or 
else were new projects too difficult 
to attract the attention of promoters. 
Remarkable progress, since its be- 
ginning in 1902, has been made by 
the service, and at the present time 
about 1,500,000 acres are under 
ditches and crops are being produced 
yearly on more than a million acres. 




1909 Same Spot 1914 

UMATILLA IRRIGATION PROJECT. OREGON 



Copyright by Muun & Co., Inc. 



ss 



or It COIXTRY AND ITS resources 



The a vera so gross return per acre 
from these lands annually is about 
.$25. Mure than 30,000 families have 
been established in homes of their 
own. Cities, towns and villages 
have sprung up in these agricul- 
tural communities. Railroads have 
• ■Mended their branches, and a vast 
region which a few years ago was 
uninhabited and a desert has been 
transformed into a prosperous farm- 
ing country. 

The table below shows the extent 
of the work and the rate of progress 
during a recent year. 



82 miles of railroad. 2,554 miles of 
telephone lines. 429 miles of power 
transmission lines, and 1,068 build- 
ings, such as power houses, pumping 
stations, offices, residences, barns 
and storehouses. The excavations 
of rock and earth in all the work 
amount to 130,149,368 cubic yards. 

The projects now under way or 
completed embrace approximately 
3,000,000 acres of Irrigable land, 
divided into 60,000 farms of from 
10 to 160 acres each. I Miring the 
year 1915 water was available from 
Government ditches for 1,450,407 



Items 


To 
June 30 


1915 


Tc 
June 30 


1914 


Increase 




Acres 


Farms 


Acres 


Farms 

1 


Acres 


Farms 


Estimated area 29 projects on corn- 


3,11S,011 

1,450,407 

461,632 
626,371 


60,603 

29,017 

10,122 
13.008 


2,921,165 

1,343,193 

416.64-4 
566,843 


58,323 

27,115 

8,559 
12.416 


196,846 
107,214 

44,988 

59.528 


2,280 


Estimated area to which service was 

prepared to supply water 

Under contract — 


1,902 
1.563 




592 






Total 


1,088,003 


23.130 


983,487 


20,9751 


104,516 


2,155 






Reservoir capacitv available, acre- 
feet 


6,500,360 




5,460,510 


1,039,850 















A summation of the work to the 
beginning of the present fiscal year 
shows that the service has dug 9,592 
miles of canals and ditches, and ex- 
cavated 89 tunnels with an aggre- 
gate length of more than 25 miles. 
.Masonry, earth, crib and rock-lilled 
dams have been erected with a total 
volume of 12,200,000 cubic yards, 
including the two highest dams in 
the world. The available reservoir 
capacity resulting is approximately 
6,500,000 acre feet, or sullicicitt 
water to cover the States of New 
Jersey and Delaware to a depth of 
12 inches. The service has built 
4,622 bridges with a total length of 
19 miles. Its culverts number 5,714 
and are 36 miles in Length. There 
are now in operation 298 miles of 
pipe line and 85 miles of flumes. 
The service has built 7M miles of 
wagon road, much of it in what was 
before inaccessible mountain regions ; 



acres on !!'.». 017 farms, and the Gov- 
ernment was under contract to sup- 
ply water to 1,0SS,003 acres. 

RESULTS OF RECLAMATION 

The object of reclamation is home 
making on arid lands — the conver- 




tNTERSTATE CANAL. NORTH PLATTE 
PROJECT. 150 MILES LONG 



RECLAMATION SERVICE 



S9 



^^fZT2. 




y -r 1 


■_ ■•§*• 


-jcr -5 ^ 


' 



•FAT HEN' 



IS AN APACHE AND HARD 
WORKMAN 



neering problems involved are those 
of settlement and successful utiliza- 
tion of the irrigation system and 
water supply by the farmers. With- 
out successful agricultural develop- 
ment a project may be a failure, 
regardless of the perfection of the 
engineering work. The sufficiency 
of the water supply and successful 
operation of the irrigation system 
are only incidental to the ultimate 
object sought by the Government as 
well as the irrigator and the success 
of the undertaking is inseparably 
connected with that of the water 



IRRIGATION AND CROP RESULTS ON GOVERNMENT RECLAMATION 

PROJECTS. 1914* 





Irrigable 
acreage 


Irrigated 
acreage 


Cropped 
acreage 


Value of 


Crops 


Project 


Total 


Per aero 
cropped 




187,112 
60,000 
14,300 
52,338 

207,000 


173,030 

25,207 

7,354 

33,873 

64,767 
18,823 

45,730 

35,788 

17,068 

2,201 

6,613 

5,743 

60,532 

39,516 

12,690 

1,224 

28,442 

1,056 

5.102 

24,440 

37,454 

7,740 

64,052 
20,600 
22,226 


169.719 

22,568 

6,540 

33,091 

58,064 
16,868 

39,138 

33,512 

17,068 

2,163 

6,561 

5,621 

59,536 

39,285 

10,731 

1,172 

27,302 

1 ,045 

3,013 

24,440 

36,709 

3,180 

•49,273 
15,920 
20,905 


$4,039,079 
709,409 
176,331 
870,381 


$23 . 80 




31.43 




26.99 


Uncompahgre Valley 


26.30 




1,033,447 
300,140 


17.80 




117,090 


17.80 




661,796 
558,059 
454,583 

34,618 
106,594 

96,707 
890,202 
441,018 
237,663 

21,458 
1,160,720 

36,440 

88,614 
347,344 
461,188 
104,575 

2,858,845 
472,480 
313.826 


16 91 


South side pumping unit. . 


'28.808 
13,440 
16.346 
36,250 
91,504 
52,039 
20.261 
1,«?4 
40,000 
12.239 
17,000 
38,000 
68,852 
10,099 

81,807 
34,000 
41,166 


16.65 
26.63 


Milk River 


16 00 


Sun River 

Lower Yellowstone 

North Platte 


16.25 
17.20 
14 95 


Tnickee-Carson 

Carlsbad 


11.23 
22.15 




18.31 




42.51 


North Dakota pumping. . . . 
Umatilla 


34.87 
29.41 




14.22 




1 2 . 56 




32.88 


Yakima: 


58.02 
29.60 




15.01 










Total 


1,240,875 


761,271 


703,424 


16,475,517 


23.50 



* Exclusive of projects constructed for the Indian Sen ice. 



sion of desert tracts into self-sup- 
porting agricultural communities. 
This object is not obtained by the 
construction of irrigation works 
alone, however elaborate or efficient 
these may be in design and opera- 
tion. More difficult than the engi- 



To show progress in reclamation 
work it is necessary to show the re- 
sults obtained by the farmer as well 
as those of the engineer. Reclama- 
tion is measured not in engineering 
units, but in homes and agricultural 
values. 



!«i 



ni i; COUNTRY AND IIS RESOURCES 



NUMBER AND SIZE OP FARMS AVAILABLE FOR ENTRY, AUGUST 1. I'M-; 



State 


Project 


No. of 

farms 


1 
Size of farms Water right 


Idaho 

Montana 

Montana 

Nebraska- W\ oming 
South Dakota 


Minidoka 
Huntley 
Sun River 
North Platte 
Belle Fourche 

Shoshone 
Truckee-Oarson 


26 
29 
26 
40 
19 
59 

56 

112 


40 to 80 acres 
40 acres 
40 acres 
40 to 80 acres 
40 to 80 acres 
40 to 80 acres 

40 to 80 acres 
40 to 80 acres 


$30 per acre 
$45 per acre* 
st',0 per acre* 
$36 per acre 
$55 per acre 
$40 per acre 
fS50. $51 and 
$52 per acre 
$60 per acre 


Nevada 



For lands under the Huntley project there is an additional charge of $4.00 ] er 
acre for the land, of which $1.00 is payable at the time of entry and the remainder in 
four equal annual instalments. For information concerning these projects and method 
of obtaining land under them, or any additional statistics not covered in this brief chapter, 
write to Statistician, Reclamation Service, Interior Department, Washington, D. C. 



The table on page 89, therefore, is 
even more illuminative of the suc- 
cess of the work than any engineer- 
ing statistics alone can possibly be. 

By no means all available In nds 
embraced in the various projects is 
taken up, and every effort is being 



made by the service to see that they 
are properly and successfully set- 
tled. The table above shows the 
number of farms available for 
entry, August 1. 1916, the size of 
the farm units and the cost of water 
right. 



- !|ftigi 




:^:. t \ 



FARM HOUSES ON THE SALT RIVER PROJECT. SHOWING IRRIGATING 
DITCH FLOODING ALFALFA 



RECLAMATION SERVICE 



91 



POWEB DEVELOPMENT 

Iii connection with the construc- 
tion of irrigation work, particularly 
of dams on the larger rivers, it lias 
been necessary to develop power. 
Power plants are operated princi- 
pally for pumping water for irriga- 
tion; incidentally for other purposes, 
the excess power being sold for do- 
mestic or industrial uses, such as 
lighting, heating, cooking and opera- 
tion of machinery. Pumping forms 
the principal use of the electric 
power development, and there were 
installed 10,432 horse-power in per- 



hours is 66,100,624, and the cost per 
kilowatt hour ranges from 3.82 cents 
at the North Dakota Williston plant 
down to 0.111 cent at the Minidoka 
plant. 

The developed power not needed 
for irrigation pumping is sold to 
customers for construction, for camp 
lights and for drainage work and 
results in a gross income of $249,174 
from power sales, which is almost 
10 per cent on cost of installation. 

But all these figures fade into in- 
significance when consideration is 
had of the accompanying table show - 



UNDEVELOPED HORSE-POWER 



Project 



Name of plant 



Head, 
Feet 



Arizona-California, Yuma 

Arizona-California, Yuma 

California 

Colorado, Grand Valley 

Colorado, Uncompahgre 

Idaho, Boise 

Idaho, Boise 

Idaho-Minidoka 

Montana, Flathead (Indian) 

Montana, Flathead (Indian) 

Montana, Huntley 

Montana-North Dakota, Lower Yel 

lowstone 

Nevada, Truck ee-C arson 

Nevada, Truckee-Carson 

New Mexico-Texas, Rio Grande. . . 

Oregon-California, Klamath 

Oregon, Umatilla 

Utah, Strawberry Valley 

"Washington, Okanogan 

Washington, Yakima, Sunnyside 

Unit 

Washington, Yakima, Tieton Unit 
Washington, Wapato 



Total. 



Drop, California Canal 
Araz 



Main Canal 



Arrowrock Dam 
Drops in canals 
Minidoka Dam 
Flathead ttiver 
Revais Creek 
Main Canal Drop 

Lateral KK drop 
Lahontan 
26-foot drop 
Elephant Butte Dam 
Various sites 
Drainage outfall 
Spanish Fork 
Salmon Creek 

Drops in canal 



9 
25 

27 
44 

63-180 

20-90 

46 

60 

1,000- 

34 



120 

26 

60-190 

22-88 

28 

125 

441 

20-88 



Horse 
power 



1,000 

7,700 

483 

3,600 

10,000 

17,000 

4,800 

10,000 

360,000 

26,000 

314 

290 
5,000 
2,000 
12,000 
9,700 
145 
1,900 
2,800 

1,800 

3,250 
9,000 



488,782 



manent pumping plants used in 
1914, in addition to numerous small 
drainage installations semi-portable 
and intermittently used. The cost 
of raising 1 acre-foot 1 foot ranges 
from 0.368 cent to 2.10 cents. 

The capacity of all the power 
plants operated by the service was, 
in 1014. 27,134 kilowatts from 37 
units. The water head ranges from 
226 feet at the Roosevelt plant to 
21 feet at the Arizona Falls plant. 
The total cost of all the plants was 
$2,542,159. The output in kilowatt 



ing available horse-power snb.je.-i to 
development but not yet developed. 

FINANCES 

At the beginning of a recent fiscal 
year the service had $1,401,714.07 
cash on hand. 

During the year this amount was 
augmented by receipts from various 
sources to a grand total of $16,- 
446.794.66. 

Of the twenty millions authorized 
by the act of June 25, 1!»1(), eight 
and one half millions were trans- 
ferred to the reclamation fund. ' 



92 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




BOISE IRRIGATION PROJECT, IDAHO. HIGHEST DAM IN THE WORLD, 351 EEET 
EROM BED ROCK TO PARAPET, 1,060 FEET LONG ON TOP 



Cash expenditures during the 
fiscal year were $14,213,172.90. 

Town-site receipts transferred to 
the credit of projects were $18,- 
436.28. 

The balance on hand at the close 
of the fiscal year amounted to 
$2,215,185.48. 



By the processes <>f the General 
Land Office and the Treasury De 
partment the receipts from sales of 
public lands are held in the Treas- 
ury from six to nine months before 
they are placed to the credit of the 
reclamation fund. Estimated re- 
ceipts from the sale of public lands 



ESTIMATED COST OF CONTEMPLATED WORK OX ALL PROJECTS DURIXO. 

FISCAL YEAR, 1916 

Examination and surveys $151,680 -^5 

Storage Bystems 1,695,052 95 

Pumping for irrigation 7.500 on 

Canal systems 2,548,004.33 

Lateral systems. 1 .'.KM), '.I'll .73 

I drainage systems 938,62 t .50 

Flood protection 286,175.00 

Power systems 77,072 i"> 

'•'arm units .' 5gjo p; in 

Permanent, improvements and lauds 1 ">. r >,t"i.s;i . 40 

Telephone systems 29, 137.00 

( tperal ion and maintenance: 

1 hiring construction $1,053,973 1 1 

Under public- notice 838,405 00 

1.S02.37S.41 

Stores and other opera I ions 692,100.00 

Unallotted to features 680,456.65 

Total $11,113,902.67 



RECLAMATION SERVICE 



93 



in the hands of the Treasury Depart- 
ment on June 30, 1915, which had 
not been credited to the reclamation 
fund amounted to approximately 
$1,670,000. 

The reclamation fund, which com- 
prises the moneys received from the 
sale of public lands, has now reached 
the total of $85,914,493.36, and from 
the sale of town-sites, $280,723.94. 

Transfer vouchers, adjusting ac- 
counts between the projects for the 
transfer of the value of services 
and equipment, amounted to $615,- 
657.5S during the fiscal year 1915. 
Since the beginning of the service 
the value of the transfers of sup- 
plies, materials, equipment and 
services between projects has 



amounted to $5,000,759.37. This 
system of transfers between projects 
enables the service to utilize equip- 
ment, materials, supplies, etc., to 
their fullest extent where needed 
and to charge the cost where the 
benefit accrues. 

ESTIMATED COST OF CONTEMPLATED 
WOKK 

It is estimated that during 1916 
the sum of $11,113,902.07 will be ex- 
pended. The table on page 92 gives 
the tentative distribution of this 
amount to the various functional 
features of all projects, including 
the Blackfeet, Flathead and Fort 
Peck Indian projects. 




K00SEVELT DAM, ARIZONA 




Fountain Geyser Old Faithful 

Haynes Photo Upper Geyser Basin 

Giant Geyser Haynes Photo 

GEYSEBS IN THE YELLOWSTONE 



CHAPTEK VII. 



OUR NATIONAL PARKS 



HOW many Americans can say 
offhand how many national 
parks we have? How many 
can name the national monuments, 
or explain the difference between a 
national park and a national monu- 
ment? 

Very few ! And such almost 
wholesale ignorance is one of many 
reasons why a Bureau of National 
Parks, as a part of the Interior De- 
partment, has for many years been 
a vital necessity and why every 
loyal American, whether he ever sees 
a national park or not, should re- 
joice that Congress has finally pass- 
ed the National Parks Service Bill. 
This bill, far reaching in import, 
reads in part as follows : 

"Be it enacted by the Senate and 
House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Con- 
gress assembled, That there is here- 
by created in the Department of the 
Interior a service to be called the 
National Park Service, which shall 
be under the charge of a director, 
who shall be appointed by the Sec- 
retary. . . . The service thus es- 
tablished shall promote and regu- 
late the use of the Federal areas 
known as national parks, monuments 
and reservations, which purpose is 
to conserve the scenery and the nat- 
ural and historic objects and the 
wild life therein and to provide for 
the enjoyment of the same in such 
manner and by such means as will 
leave them unimpaired for the en- 
joyment of future generations." 

As yet the service is but a name, 
for the Sixty-fourth Congress has 
not yet provided an appropriation 



to form the service. But everything 
is ready and as soon as the money 
is available our numerous parks and 
monuments will have the service of 
their own they have so long needed. 
There are sixteen national parks 
at present in existence, the first of 




Photo by Lindley Eddy 

SEQUOIA "GENERAL SHERMAN' 
Oldest Tree iu the World 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



96 



OVR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



National Parks 

in order of 

creation 



Hot Springs, 1832. 



Yellowstone, 1 872 . 



Yosemite, 1890. 



Sequoia, 1890 



General Grant, L890 



Casa Grande Ruin. 1892 
Mount Rainier, L899. 



Crater Lake, 1902 

Wind Cave, 1983 
Sullys Hill, 1904. 
Mesa Vcnle, 190G 

Piatt, L906 

Glacier, 1910. . . . 



Rocky Mountain. I 9 1 5, 

Hawaiian. 1916 

I laasen, L916 



Location 



Middle 
Arkansas 



North- 
western 
Wyoming 



Middle- 
eastern 
California 



Middle- 
eastern 
California 



Middle- 
eastern 
California 

Arizona 
West- 
central 
Washington 



South- 
western 

< Iregon 

South 
I »ako1 a 
North 
l >akol a 
South- 
western 

< 'olorado 
Soul hern 

< Oklahoma 

North- 
western 
Montana 



North 

middle- 
( 'olorado 
Hawaiian 

Islands 
< 'alifo. nia 



Area in 
square 
miles 



iy 2 



3,348 



1 . 1 _'.-» 



C'4 



1 ,53 1 



56 
106 



Distinct! e < h u isten ;l loa 



Hi hot springs possessing curative prop- 
erties. Many hotels and boarding 
houses. 20 hath houses under public 
control. 

More geysers than rest of the world. 
Boiling springs. Mud volcanoes. 
Petrified forests. Grand Canyon of 
the Yellowstone, remarkable for gor- 
geous coloring. Large lakes. Many 
large streams and waterfalls. Vast 
wilderness inhabited by deer, elk, 
bison, moose, antelope, bear, moun- 
tain sheep, beaver, etc., constituting 
greatest wild bird and animal pre- 
serve in world. Altitude 0,000 to 
11,000 feet. Exceptional trout fish- 
ing. 

Valley of world-famed beauty. Lofty 
cliffs. Waterfalls of extraordinary 
height. 3 groves of big trees. High 
sierra. Large areas of snowy peaks. 
Waterwheel falls. Good trout fish- 
ing. 

rhe Big Tree national park. 12,000 
sequoia trees over 10 feet in diameter. 
some 25 to 36 feet in diameter. Tow- 
ering mountain ranges. Startling 
precipices, bine trout fishing. 

Created to preserve the celebrated 
General Grant tree, 35 feel in diam- 
eter. miles from Sequoia National 
Park and under same manage nent. 

Prehistoric Indian ruin. 

Largest accessible single pea'; glacier 
system. 2S glaciers, some of large 
size, fifty to five hundred feet thick. 
Wonderful sub-alpine wild Bower 
fields. 

Lake of extraordinary blue in crate- of 
extinct volcano, no inlet, qo outlet, 
sides l.ooo feet hi^n. Interesting 
lava formations. Fine trout fishing. 

Large natural cavern. 

Wooded hilly tract on Devil's Lake. 

Most notable and besl preserved pre- 
historic cliif dwellings in United 
states, if not in the world. 

Many sulphur and other springs pos- 
sessing medicinal \alue, under Gov- 
ernment regulation. 

Rugged mountain region of Alpine 
character. L>.">0 gla-ier-1'ed lakes, til) 
small gladers. Peaks of unusual 
shape. Precipices thousands of reel 
deep Scenery of marked individ- 
uality. Fine trout lis.iing. 

Heart of the Rockies. Sn.iwy range, 
peaks n. 000 to 14,250 feel altitude. 
Remarkable records of glacial period. 

Three volcanoes. Lake of blazing lava. 
Tropical forests. 

Volcano -only one in I'nited States 
potential!} active. 



NATIONAL PARKS 



97 



which was Hot Springs, in Arkansas, 
created in 1832; the most recent, 
Hawaii National Park and Lassen 
National Park, being creations of 
the Sixty-fourth Congress, the bills 
for the two parks being approved 
August 1 and 9, 1916, respectively. 

The first purposes of the parks are 
the preservation of scenic beauty 
and natural wonders for educational 
and recreation purposes. They make 
wonders of certain regions free to 
all the country ; indeed, to all the 
world. 

Though Hot Springs was the first 
of all the parks, it was the creation 
of the Yellowstone National Park 
in Wyoming, Montana and Idaho, 
by the act of March 1, 1872, which 
really marked the beginning of a 
policy on the part of Congress of 
setting aside tracts of land as recre- 
ation grounds for all the people. 

More and more are we coming to 
know what we possess in these parks 
and the war abroad taught us afresh 
that Europe has nothing in scenery 
more worth seeing than what we 
have at home. In the Yellowstone 
National Park there were 20,250 vis- 
itors in 1914, and in 1915 two and 
one-half times as many, 51,895. 
Yosemite National Park in Cali- 
fornia had 33,452 visitors during the 
1915 season, whereas in 1914 only 
15,145 persons visited the park. 
Again, in Mount Rainier National 
Park, Washington, there has been an 
increase in the number of visitors 



of over 100 per cent— 35,100 in 1915 
as against 15,038 in 1914. 

But it has been discovered that 
national parks have a distinct com- 
mercial value, as well as an educa- 
tional and recreative one. The parks 
produce an ever increasing revenue 
from tourist traffic, one of the most 
satisfactory means of revenue a na- 
tion can have. The tourist leaves 
large sums of money lint takes away 
nothing which makes the nation 
poorer. He goes away with im- 
proved health, with a recollection of 
enjoyment of unequaled wonders of 
mountain, forest, stream and sky, of 
vitalizing ozone and stimulating 
companionship with nature; but of 
the natural wealth he takes nothing. 

The commercial potentialities of 
tourist traffic are startling. It is 
estimated that in time of peace 
Switzerland's annual revenue from 
tourists is .$150,000,000, that of 
France $000,000,000; little Italy's, 
$100,000,000. It is claimed that Amer- 
icans have spent $500,000,000 a year 
in travel abroad. The pine woods of 
Maine are estimated to bring a rev- 
enue of $40,000,000 each year on ac- 
count of the visitors they attract, 
and the orange blossoms of Florida 
are worth more to her than the 
products of her soil. Every dollar, 
therefore, which is spent by the na- 
tion on national parks may be con- 
sidered an investment which is like- 
ly to bring in a very satisfactory re- 
turn upon the money invested. 



VISITORS TO NATIONAL PARKS, 1908 TO 


1915 






Name of Park 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


Yellowstone National 


19,542 

S.S50 

1,251 

1,773 

3,511 

80 

5,275 

3,171 

26,000 

250 


32,545 

13,182 

854 

798 

5,968 

165 

4,171 

3,216 

25,000 

190 


19,575 

13,619 

2,407 

1,17S 

8,000 

250 

5,000 

3.387 

25,000 

190 

120,000 


23,054 

12,530 

3,114 

2,160 

10,306 

206 

4,500 

3,887 

30,000 

200 

130,000 

4,000 


22,970 

10,884 

2,923 

2,240 

8,946 

230 

5,235 

3,199 

31,000 

200 

135,000 

6,257 


24,929 

13,735 

3,823 

2,756 

13,501 

280 

6,253 

3,988 

35,000 

300 

135,000 

12,138 


20,250 
15,145 

4,667 

3,735 

15,038 

502 

7,096 

3,592 

30,000 

500 

125,000 

14,168 


51,895 
33,452 




7,647 


General Grant National 

Mount Rainier National 

Mesa Verde National 

Crater Lake National 

Wind Cave National 

Piatt National 

Sullys Hill National 


10,523 

35,166 

663 

11,371 

2,817 

20,000 
1,000 




115,000 








14,265 










31.000 





















NATIONAL PARKS 99 

THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF TOURIST TRAVEL TO NATIONAL PARKS 



Park 



Yellowstone: 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

Yosemite: 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

Mount Rainier 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

Glacier: 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 



Number 
of visitors 
(seasons) 



970 
929 
250 
895 

884 
735 
145 
452 

940 
501 
03S 
160 

257 

1 3S 
168 
,205 



Estimated 
gross receipts 
by concession- 
aires (seasons) 



$1,067,161.34 

1,186,811.36 

848,688.44 

2,003,072.35 

311,444.32 
359,481.45 
334,914.32 
629,929.31 

56,735.92 

66,942.76 

61,078.08 

138,120.23 



161,510.87 
155,716.14 
276,611.54 



Federal 

appropriations 

(fiscal 

years) 



$8,500 . 00 
8,500 . 00 
8,500 00 
8,500.00 

50,000 . 00 

80,000 . 00 

125,000.00 

100,000 00 

5,400.00 
20,000.00 
23,400.00 
51,000.00 

69,200.00 

75,000.00 

100,000.00 

75,000 . 00 



Revenues 

(fiscal 
years 



$16,476.38 

21,980.10 
15,439.23 
20,307 40 

23,855.77 
19,495.83 
23,400 1 t 
37,019 20 

5,370.36 

7,301.62 

9,040.10 

12,893.29 

1,490.94 
4,652.14 
4,010.71 
4,218.51 



That this is not a mere specula- 
tion is shown in the table above, 
totaling the economic value of tour- 
ist travel to Yellowstone, Yosemite, 
Glacier and Mount Rainier national 
parks during the past four years*, 
together with the revenues. 

The national parks cover an area 
of more than 4,700,000 acres. If all 
were put together it would mean an 
area of more than 7,300 square miles, 
practically as large as New Jersey. 
The Yellowstone National Park, con- 
taining more than 3,300 square miles, 
is as big as many of the independent 
European principalities that warred 
with each other for centuries before 
the genius of Bismarck united them 
into a great empire. 

Such a group of scenic areas, de- 
veloped and handled after the fash- 
ion of Switzerland, would constitute 
a national economic asset of incal- 
culable value. 

It is not for their educational, re- 
creative, or economic value alone, 
however, that the national parks 
must be regarded. The conservation 
of wild life is a feature not to be 
despised. Free as most of the parks 
are from public lumbering and pri- 
vate grazing enterprises, and pro- 
tected from hunting of any kind. 



they have the conditions essential 
for the protection and propagation of 
wild animal life. Eventually they 
will become great public nature 
schools to which teachers and stu- 
dents of animal life will repair 
yearly for investigation and study. 

The enormous increase of wild 
animals in the Yellowstone since it 
became a national park in 1S72 
points the way. Deer, elk. moose, 
bison and antelope here abound in 
greater numbers, no doubt, than be- 
fore the days of the white man; 
and many of them have become al- 
most as fearless of man as animals 
in captivity. From here many State, 
county and city parks have been 
supplied, under proper restrictions, 
with surplus animals for propaga- 
tion purposes. When interfering 
private holdings are extinguished in 
other national parks, and United 
States laws made to supersede State 
laws (a condition the newly author- 
ized Park Service will strive to bring 
about), these, too. will become cen- 
ters of animal preservation as effec- 
tive as the Yellowstone. 

By an act approved June 8, 190G. 
entitled "An act for the preserva- 
tion of American antiquities," the 
President of the United States is 



100 



OUR COUNTRY AND lis RESOURCES 




VALLEY OF ENCHANTMENT. NEAR THE CREST OF THE SIERRA NEVADAS, 
YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 



NATIONAL PARKS 



mi 



authorized, "in his discretion, to de- 
clare by public proclamation historic 
landmarks, historic and prehistoric 
structures, and other objects of his- 
toric or scientific interest, that are 
situated upon the lands owned or 
controlled by the Government of the 



United States, to be national monu- 
ments." 

There are now thirty such national 
monuments, two which did exist hav- 
ing been eliminated with the crea- 
tion uf Lassen National Park. 



NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED BY INTERIOR DEPARTMENT 



Name 



Devil's Tower 

Montezuma Castle 

El Morro 

Ohaco Canyon 

Muir Woods 

Pinnacles 

Tumacacori 

Mukuntuweap 

Shoshone Cavern 

Natural Bridges 

Gran Quivira 

Sitka 

Rainbow Bridge 

Lewis and Clark Cavern 

Colorado 

Petrified Forest 

Navajo 

Papago Saguaro 

Dinosaur 

Sieur de Monts 



Wyoming 

Arizona 

New Mexico 

New Mexico 

California 

California 

Arizona 

Utah 

Wyoming 

Utah 

New Mexico 

Alaska 

Utah 

Montana 

Colorado 

Arizona 

Arizona 

Arizona 

Utah 

Maine 



Date 




Area 






Acres 


Sept. 24. 


1906 


1.152 


Dec. 8, 


1906 


160 


Dec. 8, 


1906 


160 


Mar. 11, 


1907 


20,629 


Jan. 9, 


1908 


295 


Jan. 16, 


1<)0S 


2,0^0 


Sept. 15, 


1908 


10 


July 31. 


1909 


15,840 


Sept. 21, 


1909 


210 


Sept. 25, 


1909 


2,740 


Nov. 1, 


1909 


160 


Mar. 23, 


1910 


57 


May 30 


1910 


160 


May 16 


1911 


160 


May 24 


1911 


13,883 


July 31 


1911 


25,625 


Mai. 14 


1912 


360 


Jan. 31 


1914 


2.050 


Oct. 4 


1915 


80 


July 8 


1916 


5,000 



ADMINISTERED BY AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT 



Name 



Gila Cliff Dwellin s 

Tonto 

Grand Canyon 

Jewel Caves 

Wheeler 

Oregon Caves 

Devil Postpile 

Mount Olympus. . . 



New Mexico 

Arizona 

Arizona 

South Dakota 

Colorado 

Oregon 

California 

Washington 



Nov. 16, 1907 
Dec. 19, 1907 
Jan. 11, 
Feb. 7, 
Dec. 7, 
July 12, 1909 
July 6, 1911 
April 17, 1912 



1908 
1908 

1908 



Area 



Acres 

160 

640 

806,400 

1,280 

300 

480 

800 

299,370 



ADMINISTERED BY WAR DEPARTMENT 



N A V V. 



Big Hole Battle Field . 
Cabrillo 



State 



Montana 
California 



June 23, 1910 
Oct. 14, 1913 



Area 



Acres 
5 
1 




Jar 



Great Falls of the Yellowstone 
Cleopatra Terrace 



Golden Gate 
Eagle Rest Rock 



SOME OF THE ?rLENI)OK8 OF OUR NATIONAL PARKS 



CHAPTER VIII. 
GOOD ROADS AND BAD 



THERE are 2,273,131 miles of 
public roads in the United 
States. Of these. 10.9 per cent 
(a total of 247.490 miles) are sur- 
faced roads — roads other and pre- 



next with 51.7, followed by Indiana, 
42.3, Ohio o-',.*. New Jersey 30.3 and 
New York 27.0 per cent. 

Nebraska is at the fool of the 
list with a percentage of 0.3, rep- 




THE SLOUGH OF DESPOND 



LIFE AND PLEASURE IN GOOD ROADS 



sumably better than mere cuttings 
in the dirt. 

Rhode Island leads all the Union 
in good roads, with a percentage of 
5S.S per cent. Massachusetts comes 



resenting 250 miles of surfaced reads 
out of a total of 80,338. other back- 
ward States are Nevada. 0.5 per 
cent, Montana <>.4 per cent, and 
Kansas 1 per cent. 




THE BURDEN OF BAD ROADS 



EASY HAULAGE 



Copyright by Munn Sc Co., Inc. 



104 



OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




POOR ROADS— FARM TO RAILROAD- 
COSTLY WAY 



GOOD ROADS— FARM TO RAILROAD 
CHEAP WAY 



Ohio has the greatesl good road 
mileage, with 28,312, Nevada the 
least, with G5 miles. Texas has the 
greatest total mileage with 128,971, 
Klu.de Island the least with 2,121. 

During the past twenty years 
State governments have heen active 
in a constantly increasing measure 
in behalf of road improvement. To 
January 1, 1915, expenditures aggre- 
gating $211,859,163 had heen made 
from the appropriations by the legis- 
latures of 39 States. With these 
funds improved roads to the extent 
of 35, 177 miles have heen construct- 
ed during this period of twenty 
years at an average expenditure of 
$5,970 per mile. Yet we have not 
good roads — and we are paying the 
price. We pay in money, in lives, 
in Ignorance, in labor, in taxes, and 
in high COSl of living. 



Considering only a few phases of 
the subject, the investigator is 
struck with the universal effect of 
good roads. 

Data obtained from the Twelfth 
Census, compared with the road 
statistics, show clearly the relation- 
ship between illiteracy and bad 
roads. Many factors contribute to 
produce illiteracy, but it is signifi- 
cant that where one is found, there 
is usually the other. In Arkansas. 
Missouri, Mississippi and North 
Carolina, where less than - per cent 
of the roads are improved, there 
were 374,7ns native born white il- 
literates in 1000. out of a total pop- 
ulation of 7,800,000, whereas in 
Massachusetts, Connecticut. New 
Jersey and Rhode Island, where 30 
per cent of the roads are improved. 
there were only 20,500 native born 




A ROAD BEFORE IMPROVEMENT 



THE SAME ROAD AFTER IMPROVE- 

MENT-CLAY AND GRAVEL 

CONSTRUCTION 



GOOD ROADS AND P.AD 



10: 








LIMIT OF TWO-HORSE TEAM OVER TWELVE BALES OF COTTON ON A 
BAD ROAD-TWO BALES OF COTTON MACADAM ROAD 

ESTIMATED 1015 COST OF MARKETING SIX OF THE MORE 
IMPORTANT CROPS 



Crop 


U.S. 

Production 

1915 


Wt. 
per 
unit 


Production 


Pro- 
por- 
tion 
over 
roads 


Tonnage 
over 
Roads 


Aver- 
age 
haul 


Ton 
Mileage 


Cost 

per 

T. M. 


Total 

Hauling 

Cost 


Corn 

Wheat. ... 

Oats 

Potatoes.. . 
Cotton. . . . 
Hay 


Bus. 
3,054,535,000 
1,011,505,000 

1,540,362,000 

4:;:;,:!'.>.s. 

11,161.000 
85,225,000 


Lbs. 
70 
60 
35 
60 
1,500 
2,000 


Tuns 

106,908,690 
30,345,150 
26,956,335 
13,001,940 
8,370,750 
85,225,000 


.144 
1.00 

.28 

.75 
1.00 

.17 


Tons 
15,394,851 
30,345,150 

7.547,774 
9,751,455 
8,370,750 
14,488,250 


Miles 
7.4 
9 4 
7.3 
8.2 

11.1 
8.3 


Ton Miles 
113,921,897 
285,244,410 
55,098,749 
79,961,931 
92,915,325 
120,252,475 


.19 
.19 
.19 
.22 
.28 
.19 


$21,645,159 
54,196.438 
10,468,762 
17,591,625 
26,016,291 
22,847,969 


Totals... 






270,807,865 




85,898,230 




747,394,787 




8152,766,244 



white illiterates in 1900, out of a 
total population of 6,025,000. 

Tin- cost of poor roads is a ter- 
rific item in high cost of living. It 
costs more to ship a ton of cotton 
from farm to railroad than from 
New York to London, as is plainly 



shown for six great shippings in the 
table above. 

Of the 3,114,300 autos in the world 
this country possesses 2,400,000 — 
more than one for every mile of 
road. In 1916, L,200,000 more will 
be manufactured. Imagine the cost 




SMALL ROAD TAX-NO SAVING FAIR ROAD TAX-NO LOSSES 



GOOD ROADS AND BAD 



107 




POOR ROAD— TIME IS 
DELAY 



MONEY— A 



GOOD ROAD— TIME IS MONEY— THEY 
GOT THERE 



iii depreciation of these cars due to 
poor roads. If the cars average 
$500 each in value, and bad roads 
cost 10 per cent depreciation, these 
scrapped cars, due to poor roads, 
cost the United States $120,000,000 
per year, more than half what has 
been spent on good roads in twenty 
years ! 

Now the Federal Government has 
taken hold of the problem and the 
sum of $85,000,000 of Federal funds 
was made available for constructing 
rural roads by the Federal Aid Road 
Bill, which became a law July 11, 
1916. For the construction of rural 
post roads under co-operative ar- 
rangements with the highway 
departments of the various States, 
$75,000,000 is to be spent, the re- 
maining $10,000,000 being for roads 
and trails within National forests. 
The Federal Government's share in 



co-operation with the States is to 
be 50 per cent of the cost. 

Five million dollars is available 
for expenditure before June 30, 1917. 
Appropriations increase at the rate 
of five millions a year until 1921, 
when twenty-five millions is provid- 
ed, making a total of seventy-five 
millions. One million dollars a year 
for ten years is for the development 
of roads and trails within National 
forests. The class of roads to be 
built and the method of construction 
are to be mutually agreed upon by 
the Secretary of Agriculture and the 
State highway departments. 

The Act provides that the Secre- 
tary of Agriculture shall apportion 
the appropriation in the following 
manner : 

One-third in the ratio the area of 
each State bears to the total area of 
all the States; 




SCHOOL CHILDREN ON BAD ROAD 



THE KIND OF SCHOOL AND ROAD 
EVERY BOY AND GIRL IS 
ENTITLED TO 



108 



Dili COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



One-third in the ratio the popula- 
tion of each State bears to the total 
population of .-ill the States; 

One-third in the ratio the mileage 
of rural delivery routes and star 
routes in cadi State hears to the 
total mileage of rural delivery 
routes and star routes in all the 
States. 

States securing Federal aid must 
make needed repairs and maintain 
a reasonably smooth surface, hut are 
not obliged to make extraordinary 
repairs or undertake reconstruction. 




A TRACTOR ROAD GRADER 



The Secretary of Agriculture, 
July 21, 1916, certified to the Sec- 
retary of the Treasury and the gov- 
ernors and State highway depart- 
ments of the several states the ap- 
portionment Of the first $5,000,1 

Ill accordance with the Act, .*! per 
cent, or $150,000, needed for ad- 
ministration was deducted. The 
several States are eligible for the 
following amounts : 



Alabama $104,ms.9O 

A i izona 68,513.52 

Arkansas 82,689 10 

( California 151,063 '.il> 

Colorado 83,690 1 i 

Connecticut 31,090.44 

Delaware 8,184.37 

Florida 55,976 27 

Georgia 134,329.48 

Idaho 60, 163 50 

Illinois 220,926.23 

Indiana 135,747 62 

Iowa 14fi.175.60 

Kansas 143,207. 10 

Kentucky '.17,171 .91 

Louisiana 67.17 1 66 

Maine 18,451.50 

Maryland 14,047 22 

Massachusetts 73,850.95 

Michigan l 15,783 72 

Minnesota l 12,394 or, 

Mississippi 88,905 84 

Missouri 169,720 11 

Moniana 98,28^ 19 

Nebraska 106,770.81 

Nevada 64,398 30 

\'i u Hampshire 20,996.62 

New Jersey 59,212.68 

\c\\ Mexico 78,737.81 

\ru ^ ork 250,720.27 

North Carolina II I. .'.si .92 

North Dakota 76,1 13 06 

< >hio 186,905. 12 

Oklahoma 1 15,139.00 

< >regon 1 8,687.37 

Pennsylvania 23().ni 1.17 

Rhode Island I 1,665.71 

South Carolina 71,807 64 

South Dakota 80,946.02 

Tennessee 114,153 Is 

Texas 291 ,927 . 81 

Utah 56,950.15 

Vermont 22,84 1 17 

Virginia 99,660 7s 

Washington 71,884.25 

West Virgini i 53,270 1 1 

Wisconsin 1 28,361 82 

Wyoming 61,196 n7 

Total S4, Sod, ono oo 




HAULING 22> 2 YARDS OF CRUSHED ROCK 



CHAPTER IX. 



THE PANAMA CANAL 



OX May 4, 1004, the United 
States took possession of a 
narrow strip of lancL,ten miles 
wide, crossing the Isthmus of Pan- 
ama, called the Canal Zone. On 
August 15, 1014, the Panama Canal 
was opened to commerce. Between 
these two dates lie all the wonder 
of the construction of the greatest 
engineering feat of all time. 

But that story has been told and 
retold. What concerns us now is 
what the canal accomplishes, how it 
does its work, what it costs — what 
it is worth. 

DISTANCES 

The distance by water around 
South America is 10,500 nautical 
miles from Colon (Atlantic) to Bal- 
boa (Pacific). By canal the dis- 
tance between the same two points 
is 44 miles. 

The difference in length of these 
routes, 10,450 miles, represents the 
maximum distance that can be 
saved to a vessel by use of the 
canal. 

So far in the use of the canal, 
over 40 per cent of the vessels which 
have passed through it have been 
engaged in the coastwise trade of 
the United States — each of them sav- 
ing about 7,800 miles on each trip. 
If their average speed be taken at 
ten knots, they have averaged a 
saving of over a month at sea 
on each voyage from coast to 
coast. Where formerly the round 
trip of a ten-knot vessel required 
about fifty-five days' actual steam- 
ing, the time at sea for the same 



trip for the same vessel is now 
reduced to about twenty-two days. 

SPEED 

The transit of the canal requires 
about 10 hours, of which approxi- 
mately 3 hours are spent in the 
locks. In the sea-level channels and 
Gaillard (formerly "Culebra") Cut. 
speed is limited to G knots; through 
Gatun Lake they may make 10, 12, 




Photo Underwood & Underwood 

STEAMSHIP "ALLIANCE." FIRST OCEAN- 
GOING VESSEL TO PASS THROUGH 
THE PANAMA CANAL, JUNE 8, 1914 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



110 



(il i; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



and 15 knots, according to the width 
of the channel. 

Bandling a vessel through the 
canal is essentially the same as in 
any charted channel. The canal 
channel is accurately charted, fully 
equipped with aids t<> navigation, 
and governed by rules which the 
pilot, cue of whom must be on any 
vessel going through, enforces. 

LOCKING THROUGH 

As a vessel approaches the locks, 
the operator at the control house 
indicates by an electrically operated 
signal if the vessel shall enter Un- 
locks, on which side, or if it shall 
keep back, or moor alongside the ap- 
proach wall. If everything is ready 
for the transit of the locks, the 
vessel approaches the center ap- 
proach wall, a pier extending a 
thousand feet, and connections are 
made with the electric towing loco- 
motive. 

The vessel then moves forward 
slowly until it is in the entrance 
chamber, when lines are thrown out 
on the other side and connections 
are made with towing locomotives 
on the side wall, six for the larger 
vessels, three on each wall of the 
lock chamber. Two keep forward of 
the vessel, holding her head to the 
center of the chamber; two aft, 
holding the vessel in check: and two 
slightly forward of amidships, which 
do most of the towing. The loco- 
motives are secured against slip- 




Photo Underwood & Underwood 



BLOWING UP A DIKE ON THE PANAMA 
CANAL 



ping by cogs in a rack. They are 
equipped with a towing windlass, 
which allows the prompt paying out 
and taking in of hawser. 

The water within the lock cham- 
ber proper, beyond the entrance 
chamber, is brought to the level of 
that in the approach, the gales to- 
ward the vessel are opened, a tender 
chain is lowered, and the locomo- 
tives maneuver the vessel into the 
chamber. The gates are closed, the 
water raised or lowered to the level 
of the next chamber, the gates at the 
other end are opened, and the ves- 
sel moved forward. Three such 
stops are made at (iatun. two at 
Miraflores, and one at Pedro Miguel. 




STEAM SHOVELS AT WORK ON THE 

PANAMA CANAL CULEBRA CUT 

MAY 20, 1913 



Ocean-going vessels to the number 

of 7^7 passed through the canal from 
July 1. 1915, to June .'i". 1916. Their 
aggregate net tonnage was 2,479,761. 

Cargo carried through the canal on 
these ships amounted to 3,140,046 

tons, and the ships paid in tolls 
$2,399,830.42. 

The canal was closed in Septem- 
ber, 1915, and remained closed, ex- 
cept for the transit of small ves- 
sels which had wailed at the en- 
trances for passage, until the mid- 



vir 




OPERATION OF MIRAFLORES LOCKS— "PRESIDENTE SARMIENTO" ENTERING UPPER- 
EAST CHAMBER, JULY 14, 1915 
S.S. "CRISTOBAL" IN PEDRO MIGUEL LOCKS ON RETURN TRIP THROUGH CANAL, 

AUGUST 4, 1914 



112 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



die of April. The operations were 
thus normal for slightly less than 
half the year. 

The number of ships which passed 
through the canal during the pre- 
ceding fiscal year was 1,088, aggre- 
gate lift tonnage 3,843,035, cargo 
carried through 1,969,792 tons. Their 
tolls amounted to $4,343,383.69, after 
all refunds had been made. 

Traffic in two years is shown he- 
low : 



TOLLS 

Canal tolls arc as follows : 

Merchant vessels, passengers or 
cargo, per net ton (each 100 cubic 
feet i of actual earning capacity, 
$1.20. 

Vessels in ballast, no passengers 
or cargo, per ton 75 cents. 

Naval vessels, other than trans- 
ports, colliers, hospital ships, and 
supply ships, per displacement ton, 
no cents. 



Item 


Fiscal year 
1915 


Fiscal year 
1916 


Per cent 1916 
of 1915 




1,088 

3,843,035 

4,969,792 

$4,343,383.69 


787 72.3 




2.179,761 64.5 


Tons of cargo 

Tolls 


:i.\ 10,046 63.4 
S2,. '599,830. 42 55.3 









on June 30, 1916. the total re- 
ceipts of tolls from vessels passing 
through the canal were $2,399,830.42. 
The total amount expended on ac- 
count Of the operation and mainte- 
nance of the canal was $6,999,750.15, 
Leaving a deficit to the amount of 
$4,599,919.73. 

For every dollar the Government 
spent for operation and maintenance 
it received hack in tolls 34.28 cents. 
It spent practically three times as 
much to maintain and operate the 
canal as it received in tolls. 

During the preceding fiscal year 

the tolls had exceeded the expenses 
by $276,656.38, which represented a 
profit of 0.67 per cent on the ex- 
penditure for operation and main- 
tenance alone, not counting anything 

for interest on the money invested 

or for depreciation of plant. 

COASTWISE TRADE 

Tolls on vessels in the United 
States coastwise trade amounted to 

is.:;t; per cent of all tolls collected 
in 1916. During the preceding tis- 
cai year, coastwise traffic yielded 
over 36 per cent of the total, or 
practically double the proportion 
which existed during the fiscal year 
1910. 



Army and Navy transports, col- 
liers, hospital ships, and supply 
ships, measured as merchant vessels, 
per net ton. $1.20. 

To the uninitiated, to whom these 

Charges may seem heavy, the follow- 
ing example is given to show their 
justice and the saving effected by 
the canal. 

The American Hawaiian Company 




A CANAL LOCK AT NIGHT 

has a liner called the "Ari/.oiian." 
< Ml a hasis of ;i speed of 12 knots. 

the canal saves tin- "Arizonan" 
about 26.8 da.\s at sea on each voy- 
age from coast to coast. The •'Ari- 
zonan" is a relatively large vessel. 
470 feet long by o7.2 feet in the 




OPERATION OF GATUN LOCKS, TJ. S. S. "WISCONSIN" IN MIDDLE-EAST CHAMBER- 
ATLANTIC ENTRANCE IN DISTANCE, JULY 15, 1915 
MIRAFLORES LOCKS-GENERAL VIEW. LOOKING NORTH FROM TOP OF FLOATING 
CRAN£ "HERCULES," SHOWING SPILLWAY AND LAKE— PEDRO MIGUEL 
LOCKS IN DISTANCE, AUGUST 28. 1915 



114 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 

COLLECTION* BY MONTHS AND DIRECTIONS 



M ONTH 


Vessels entering 
from Pacific 


Vessels entering 
from Atlantic 


Total 


L915 

July 


$308,264.32 
268,397.23 
168,450.30 


$265,101.35 
228,394.80 
181,048.00 


$573,365.67 
496,792.03 

349.498 30 


August 


i ictober 


November. .■ 








December 

1916 
January 


93 . 60 

18.00 

832 . 80 

268 . 80 

97,779.29 

197,000.83 

213,103.11 


10,732.40 

636.39 
1.20 

150.00 
137,839.15 
171,022.96 
150.695.89 


10,826 00 

654.39 
834.00 

4 1 S . 80 
235,618.44 
368,023 7!) 
363,799.00 


March 

April 

May 




Total 


$1,254,208.28 


$1,145,622.14 


$2,399,830.42 



beam, and has carried as much as 
11,780 tons of cargo through the 
canal on one of her voyages. The 
canal tolls levied on each passage 
are $7,891.20, The cost of operating 
the "Arizonan" at sea may be taken 
at $450 a day. For 26 days this 
means $11,700, from which the sub- 
traction of the tolls leaves a net 



saving of approximately $3,808 per 
voyage. 

Partly because of the many slides 
and the cost of their removal, part- 
ly because of the fact that they 
closed the canal for six months in 
a year and partly because of the 
war, the tolls do not by any means 
pay expenses. 



m 200000 * 30CIOOO 



•914 J 



1915 < 




PANAMA CANAL TRAFFIC 




S.S. 'CRISTOBAL" IN CULEBRA CUT AT PARAISO ON RETURN TRIP THROUGH 

CANAL— LOOKING NORTH EROM TOP OF CERRO LUISA, AUGUST 4, 1914 

U.S.S. "OHIO" PASSING CUCARACHA SLIDE-LOOKING NORTH, JULY 16, 1915 



11G 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES 



, BANGE IN TOLLS CHARG] - 

During the first months tolls were 
levied on the basis of the net ton- 
nage of ships determined by special- 
ly formulated rules for measurement 
for the Panama Canal, in which the 
net tonnage was the space available 
for carrying cargo, reckoned in tons 
of 100 cubic feet. Following an in- 
terpretation of the Panama Canal 
Act by the Attorney General, the 
amount of tolls collectable has been 
governed also by the net tonnage ;is 
determined by the rules for registry 
in the United States, it having been 
decided that the tolls should not ex- 
ceed $1.25 per net ton on this hasis. 

The result of this system has been 
a loss in revenue. During the fiscal 
year ending June 30, 1916, the tolls 
collected amounted to $2,395,928.77. 
If the original Panama Canal rules 
had been adhered to. collections 
would have amounted to $2,786,- 
<UL'>i\ a difference of $390,714.05, 
14.05 per cent of the hypothetical 



earnings under the original system, 
and If,.:; per cent of the amount act- 
ually Collected. 

CHARACTER OF FREIGHT. 

Tweuty principal commodities to- 
gether made up 07 per cent of all 
cargo carried through the canal, be- 
ing 2,009,897 tons out of a grand 
total of :_',.: 10,046 tons. The miscel- 
laneous articles other than the 
twelve principal commodities aj:gre- 
gated 1,130,149 tons. 

.Nitrates amounted t<> 894,139 tons; 
refined petroleum to 271,041 : coal, 
243,216; sugar, USUI: lumber, 
'.m'i.Os.-, ; manufactured goods of iron 
and steel. s7.::7o; crude oil. 69,812; 
railroad material. 57,829; iron ore, 
52,250; canned goods, 11,300; barley, 
38,006; and copper. 36,700 tons. 

CANAL FORCE 
Many people have an idea that be- 
cause the canal is finished and open 
for business therefore the Isthmus 
is depopulated. How far wrong this 



c 




Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jon Feb Mor Apr May June Julu Aug Sept 
1914 l9l5 

CROSS TRAFFIC IN THE CANAL 



THE PANAMA CANAL 



11' 



is may l>o seen by the following 
statement of the working force actu- 
ally engaged during the last week of 
July. 1916: 

The occupants of Government 
quarters numbered 6,772 xlniericans. 

Department or Division 

Operation and Maintenance: 

Locks and office 713 

Terminal construction 752 

Building 2,243 

Electrical 572 

Municipal Engineering 2,826 

Dredging 2,692 

Mechanical 2,550 

Marine 277 

Fortification 388 

General Construction 59 

Total 13,072 

Supply: 

Commissary l ,976 

Subsistence 381 

Quartermaster 2,103 

Accounting 213 

Health 1,019 

Executive 466 

Panama Railroad 4,690 

Contractors 198 

Grand Total 24,121 



df whom 3,747 were men, 1,454 wo- 
men, and 1,571 children ; and 10,925 
West Indians, of whom 5,880 were 
men, 2,1SN women, and 2,857 chil- 
dren. 

RECENT IMPROVEMENTS 

The new 1,000-foot dry dock at 
Balboa was put in active commercial 
service the last of August, 1916. 
The first use of the dock was on 
June 27, with the docking of the 
dredge "Corozali," and since that 
time other canal vessels have been 
docked. The first privately owned 
vessel to make use of it was the 
Sl-ton auxiliary schooner "Chiriqui." 
registered in Panama, which en- 
tered the dock on Tuesday. August 
22 

The first commercial use of the 
new coaling plant at the Atlantic 
terminus of the canal was made in 
the morning of Wednesday, August 
30, when the steamship "Otaki" was 
taken alongside the reloader wharf 
to receive 550 tons of coal. . 




GAILLARD CUT CULEBRA— LOOKING NORTH FROM CONTRACTOR'S HILL, SHOWING 

BARRIER ACROSS CANAL FORMED BY SLIDES FROM EAST AND WEST 

BANKS, NOVEMBER 18, 1915 



lis 



01 I: C01 NTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



SLIDES 

So much has been said of the 
closing of, or interference of the 

operation of, the canal by slides, 
that nmst people have a confused 
idea that the mountains on each 
side of the canal are gradually slid- 
ing into it, and some have even come 
to believe that the canal will one 
day be known as a gigantic en- 
gineering failure. 

Space forbids going into the sub- 
ject. But for the comfort of those 
who are anxious lest we have spent 
our money and time for nothing, 
the following quotation from Major 
General George W. Goethals' paper 
on "Slides at Panama,"* published Jan. 
."">. 1916, may well be printed here: 

"It is certain, the slides are due 
to the failure of underlying strata, 
because these were unable to bear 
the weighl that the banks broughl 
upon them. Under the circumstances 



it is difficult to understand the im- 
pression that has gained credence 
in some quarters that a sea-level 
canal would have avoided the dif- 
ficulties encountered, since the cut- 
ting would have been through the 
same material, but at least 80 feet 
deeper. 

"It is also certain that nothing 
can stop the movements until the 
angle of repose is reached for the 
materials under the conditions that 
exist, and that this can be reached 
only by removing the excess amount 
of material. If experience counts 
for aught, then that gained in the 
handling of the slides and the breaks 
that have occurred along the line of 
the canal haw* m, <]<,i/ht that the 
means adopted and now in use will 
effect a cure; furthermore, that 
when cured no further troubles need 
be anticipated from slides in this 
locality." 




Copyright Harris & Ewing 



COL. GOETHALS. U.S.A.. THE PANAMA 
CANAL BUILDER 



CHAPTEE X. 
THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 

GEOLOGICAL, COAST AND GEODETIC 
AND HYDROGRAPHIC 

THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



VITAL to the proper develop- 
ment of our great natural re- 
sources is an accurate knowl- 
edge of those resources. It is with 
these that the Geological Survey is 
concerned, with their investigation, 
their development and their proper 
exploitation. 



and the area topographically mapped 
by the topographers was more than 
:>5.000 square miles. The land 
classification work of the Geological 
Survey last year resulted in the 
classification of about 36,000 square 
miles in the public land States. In 
the collection of statistics of mineral 




ACCURATE MEASUREMENT WORK IN THE FIELD.— GEODETIC SURVEY 



Spending $1,620,520 in the last 
fiscal year for which a report is 
available (to June 30, 1915 I the 
Geological Survey's work can hardly 
be summed up in a sentence. Dur- 
ing the year geological investiga- 
tions were made in 47 States and 
Alaska ; topographic surveys were 
made in 30 States. Alaska anil Ha- 
waii, and stream measurements were 
made in 41 States and Hawaii. The 
total area covered by geologists in 
reconnaissance and detailed surveys 
was more than 76.000 square miles 



production the Geological Survey co- 
operated with the State geologists of 
II. States and carried on correspond 
ence with 90,000 producers, as well 
as answering over 50,000 letters of 
inquiry. 

The bureau divides its activities 
into the Geologic. Topographic, 
Water Resources, Land Classifica- 
tion, Publication and Administrative 
brandies. 

Geological Branch 

The original duties of the geologic 



Copyright by Munii & Co., Inc. 



THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SI "II VETS 



121 



branch were the classification of the 
public lands and the examination of 
the geological structure, mineral re- 
sources and products of the national 
domain. These duties were at first 
construed to apply only to the public 
land States. Later, however, in 
order that all parts of the country 
might share alike in the benefits of 
its work, the survey was specifically 
authorized "to continue the prepara- 
tion of a geological map of the 
United States," the scope of its 



the earth's crust and its mineral 
constituents. The survey is a source 
of geologic information regarding 
not only the geology of the United 
Stales and its possessions, but also 
that of Mexico, Central America and 
even South America. By corre- 
spondence it is asked for data re- 
garding the geology and mineral de- 
posits of all parts of the world. 
The geologic branch has the double 
task of geologic surveying, includ- 
ing the investigation, description 




MAP OF THE UNITED STATES SHOWING AREAS COVERED BY TOPOGRAPHIC 
SURVEYS PRIOR TO JULY 1, 1915 



operations being thus made nation- 
wide. Since that time (1882) the 
investigations necessary to the ful- 
fillment of the survey's obligations 
to the public have become as varied 
as the aspects of geology itself. 

The geologic branch is the effective 
agency of the survey in investiga- 
tions in all parts of the United 
States and Alaska and also the great 
geologic information bureau to 
which the American public, from 
Key West to Point Barrow and from 
San Diego to Eastport, applies for 
knowledge of every sort concerning 



and mapping of the geology and 
mineral deposits of all parts of the 
country ; the classification of the 
public lands and the publication of 
the results of its work, and furnish- 
ing to the public miscellaneous geo- 
logic information derived from all 
sources. 

But it is not to the general public 
only that its services are rendered 
direct. Probably no one bureau of 
the Government co-operates with so 
many others in their work as does 
this survey. 

The survey co-operates with the 



1 22 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Bureau of Minos in the metallo- 
graphic study of ores, in the Investi- 
gation of the invasion of California 
oil wells by salt water, in studies 
of the application of geology to en- 
gineering problems of mining and 
construction and in the examination 
of placers and placer mining in the 
United States. The survey is en- 
gaged with the Bureau of Standards, 
the Bureau of Mines and the Office 



Justice in connection with suits re- 
garding public lands: to the Navy 
Department in regard to <>il and 
water supplies; to the Office of In- 
dian Affairs in the classification of 
Indian lands: to the War Depart- 
ment with reference to water sup- 
plies in its reservations, and to the 
(General Land Office in the classifica- 
tion of withdrawn coal, oil and 
phosphate lands. 



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h-k~rTv-i r rf.-^=bjri-r 1 \ x^k i__Lj_j^4! 



COAST AND GEODETIC SUKVEYS 



of Public Roads in a systematic 

study of building stones. It co- 
operated informally with the Smith- 
sonian institution, Bureau of Fish- 
eries, Forest Service, Navy Depart- 
ment, War Department and Light- 
house Service, as well as with insti- 
tutions of learning, including the 
Geophysical Laboratory and Marine 
Biological station of the Carnegie 
Institution. Services are rendered 
to the Department of Agriculture in 
the examination of lands in the na- 
i tonal forests ; to the I department of 



Topographic Work 
The general public is perhaps more 
familiar with the work of the topo- 
graphic brancb of the survey than 
with any other, since most people 
at one time or another have use for 
accurate maps of the country in 
which they live or intend to visit. 
Carried on in co-operation with the 
states, the work of mapping the 
whole country has made greal prog- 
ress, 10.2 per cent of the entire 
area and that the most important. 
economically considered— h a v i n s 



Till] THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 



VS.\ 




1. Plane Table Work. 2. Lad Signaling Roadman to Move. 3. Reading Microscopically in 

Precise Measurement Work in the Field. 4. Erecting a Signal Over a Recovered 

Triangulation Point 

THE GEODETIC SURVEYORS AT WORK 



11'4 



OUR COUNTRY AM > ITS RESOURCES 



PRESENT CONDITION OF TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF THE 
UNITED STATES AN D NEW AREAS SURVEYED JULY 1, 1914 TO JUNE 30, 1915 





Area mapped to 
June 30, 1915 


Percent ago of 

total area of 

State mapped to 

June 30, 1915 






Sq. Miles 

19.192 

68,996 

21,380 

114,708 

48,783 

4,965 

1,202 

70 

2,339 

17,337 

26,185 

14,551 

3,441 

11,652 

64,159 

17,973 

8,319 

9,361 

12,327 

8,266 

6,018 

6,541 

2,126 

36,710 

57,163 

26,524 

51,115 

3,380 

S.224 

37,247 

43.553 

18,390 

9,716 

40,018 

39.851 

23.406 

24,908 

1,248 

5.640 

18,594 

21,153 

67,782 

68.797 

4.190 

29.980 

26,033 

24,170 

12,203 

28,404 


37 
61 
40 
72 
47 

100 
51 

100 
4 
29 
31 
26 
9 
21 
78 
44 
17 
28 

100 

100 
10 
8 
4 
53 
39 
34 
46 
36 

100 
30 
89 
35 
14 
97 
57 
24 
55 

100 
18 
24 
50 
25 
81 
44 
70 
3S 

100 
21 
29 




































































































































Ohio 




































1 lali 
































Total 


1.218,290 
1 ,393 


40.2 
22 













L26 



(U'K COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




TRIANGULATION SURVEY 



been surveyed and published. The 
table on page 124 gives the data for 

each Stale. 

These maps, most beautifully en- 
graved and printed, can be obtained 
at a nominal price. A key map, 
showing just what portions of each 
State are available, should be se- 
cured firsl by application t<> the sur- 
vey, from which selections can be 
made as desired. The maps are in 
color and accurate with the accu- 
racy of the highesl degree <>f engi- 
neering skill. 

Water Resources Land 
Classification 

Immensely important though they 
are, space forbids any extensive re- 
port of the work of the water re- 
sources branch. Full information in 
regard to the water work In forty- 
one States and Hawaii, of which 
twenty-six have cooperated, as have 
the Reclamation, Indian and Public 



Health Service and many army en 
gineers, can be had on application 
to the survey. 

Similarly the land classification, 
and the withdrawal and restoration 
of public lands with relation to their 
oil, coal and mineral deposits, is 
a subject too big for extended notice 
here anil too special for a popular 
report More than 36,000 square 
miles of land were classified in the 
year just passed. 

Publications 

The work of the Geological Sur- 
vey is largely made available to the 
public by distribution of printed re- 
ports and maps. The publications 
Of a year consisted of 1 annual 
report. 1 monograph, 5 professional 
papers. 10 separate chapters from "J 
professional papers, 35 bulletins, 30 
separate chapters from 5 bulletins, 
.'::; water supply papers. IS separate 

chapters from 4 water supply papers, 



TDK THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 



1 annual report on mineral resources 
for 191.'! (published also in <i:i ad 
vance chapters, 15 delivered in 1913- 
14 and 47 in 11)14-15), 5 advance 
chapters from the annual report on 
mineral resources for 1914, 3 geo- 
logic folios, 2 lists of publications, 
1 list of topographic maps and folios, 
pamphlets entitled "Topographic In- 
structions of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, 1915," and "Service 
Bulletin, 1914," leaflets entitled "Na- 
ture and Uses of Topographic Maps," 




PRECISE LEVELING 

•The Production of Copper in 1914" 
and "The Production of Spelter in 
1914," 3 circulars concerning geo- 
logic folios, 22 index map circulars. 
55 press bulletins and 10 monthly 
lists of new publications. 

A complete list of all Geological 
Survey publications, with their cost 
price, can be obtained from the Su- 
perintendent of Public Documents. 
Government Printing Office, Wash- 
ington, D. C, to whom application 
should be made by those desiring to 
obtain such publications. Ma] is, 
however, are obtainable from the 
survey direct, as stated above. 

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY 

A bureau of the Department of 
Commerce, the Coast Survey per- 
forms work seldom heard of by the 
general public, of the most vital 
importance not only to the scientific 
world but the public itself. 

Every coast chart, on which the 
vessels of the navy and the mari- 
time world in general depend for 
safety of both life and property, is 
made by the Coast Survey. Its 



charts are models for all the world 
lor both accuracy and beauty. 

The books of tide tables, on which 
all mariners depend for tide condi- 
tions in harbors and along the 
coasts, are published by the Coast 
Survey. Most remarkable of books, 
these enormous summaries of calcu- 
lations are not the work of human 
hands and brains but the result of 
the labor of the most wonderful cal- 
culating machine in the world — the 
tide predicting engine. A huge af- 
fair of wheels and shafts, occupying 
a mahogany and glass case which 
fills a room of the bureau, this most 
accurate and intricate of machines 
does the work of a hundred com- 
puters and more accurately than any 
human being could do it. 

In addition to the preparation and 
printing and issuing of coast charts, 
the survey conducts triangulation 
work which will in time gridiron 
the whole United States, determines 
latitudes, investigates magnetic phe- 
nomena, conducts precise leveling, 
makes special surveys and performs 
a host of special duties, such as sup- 
plying experts for duty on Interna- 
tional Boundary Commissions, In- 
ternational Geodetic Association, 
Board of Life Saving Appliances, 
Mississippi River Commission, co- 
operation with Alaskan Engineering 
Commission, etc. 

Its hydrographic work for coast 
charts is of the highest importance 
and its development of what is 
known as the "wire drag" has revo- 
lutionized all such work. No mat- 
ter how closely soundings may be 
made of a harbor, for instance, it is 
impossible to be certain that all 
sunken rocks, wrecks, shoals or other 
obstructions to navigation have been 
discovered. But with a submerged 
wire drag of a known depth, dragged 
through the water between two 
widely separate vessels, a positive 
result is obtained resulting in a 
security beyond price to tin 1 mariner. 

In its work the Coast Survey 
sends out numerous parties which 
work along the coasts, or, if trian- 
gulation or leveling is being done, 



128 



nil! COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



in the interior. Many vessels are 
used for coast work, including the 
steamers "Bache," "Endeavor" (now 
sold), "Hydrographer," "IsLs," "Ex- 
plorer," "G edne y," "McArthur," 
"Patterson," "Taku" and "Yukon" 
and the schooner "Matchless." 

In the Philippine Islands five ves- 
sels aid the work of the survey, re- 
porting to the suboffice at Manila. 
This work is prosecuted partly with 
funds of the survey and partly with 
funds from the Philippine Govern- 




PLANE TABLE WORK IN THE WATER 
IN THE PHILIPPINES 

in. ill. which also furnishes four of 
the five vessels engaged. The ships 
are the "Pathfinder," "Marinduque," 
"Romblon," "Fathomer" and "Re- 
search." 

li is difficult, if not Impossible, to 
cover in a few words the extensive 
and varied work of a bureau which 
requires :i closely printed report of 
156 pages to Show a year's activi- 
ties. Bu1 in spite of the fad that 
the determination of astronomic 



latitudes, the determination of 
gravity intensity, the prosecution of 
triangulation, the wire-drag hydro- 
graphic work which last year dis- 
covered and charted hundreds of 
shoals and obstructions to naviga- 
tion, the coast pilot work, the tidal 
determination and publications, the 
assistance rendered vessels and mar- 
iners in distress, the precise level- 
ing, the special surveys and special 
services rendered by the bureau, the 
determination of magnetic elements, 
dip, declination and horizontal in- 
tensity made in .31 States, are all 
highly important, it is after all 
the coast charting and the printing 
and distribution of these charts 
which are the most indispensable 
features of this highly important 
scientific bureau. 

During the year there were 
printed : 

Lithographic charts 62,036 

Engraved charts 53,611 

Miscellaneous lithographic prints 22,417 
Miscellaneous engraved prints... 25 

Total 138,039 

a total of 304.799 impressions from 
the press. 

The charts issued during the year 
were 119,387, an increase of 1,895 
over the previous year. Thirty-nine 
thousand one hundred and twenty- 
four of these charts were issued to 
the Hydrographic Office for navy 
use and 52,855 supplied the mer- 
chant marine through sales agents. 
Coast pilots were issued to the num- 
ber of 6,291, and tide tables for the 
Atlantic Coast 2,050, Pacific Coast 
10,775, General 2.206. 

The appropriation for 1915 was 
$1,039,730. For 1916 it was $1,365,- 
620, most of the increase" being for 
two new and badly needed vessels. 
The money is expended as follows: 

For field expenses $355,400 

Repairs and maintenance of 

vessels £0,000 

Officers and men. vessels I'. MM' 01) 

Pay of field officers 174,600 

Pay of office force 204.420 

i iffi.-e expenses 500.000 

Two new vessels 2S9.000 

The urgent need of the ('oast and 
Geodetic Survey is for new quar- 
ters. Occupying several old build- 



THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 



129 



ings, none of them built for the pur- 
pose (one was once a hotel, another 
a private house!) much time, money 
and efficiency is wasted from lack of 
proper facilities. Already in the 
first rank in naval and maritime im- 
portance, this Government bureau 
will, when allowed to expand and 
work under proper conditions, take 
its place in popular estimation with 
other better known but no more im- 
portant bureaus of the Government 
which, because of their popular ap- 
peal, fare so much better at the 
hands of Congress. 



The Hydrographic Office also pub- 
lishes sailing directions and manuals 
for the safe navigation of vessels 
based on the original surveys and 
reports, or upon similar publications 
or information received from for- 
eign hydrographic offices. 

The Hydrographic Office also is- 
sues a number of publications. The 
Weekly Notice for Mariners is a 
publication for which the demand 
increases greatly from year to year. 
During the fiscal year ending 1915, 
277,420 whole weekly notices and 
241,74S extracts therefrom were pub- 







^■FtY \ SHOY"f irwds^ 





•%y ' -,' 


J^fc 


J- jtH-4 -' " 


- tn 






FTa ; ' y 




■■■-■.... < Li. 




■• : . -^ . ■ l> ". - 



PROGRKSS SKF.TCH 

UNITED STATES 





HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS 



HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE 

The Hydrographic Office of the 
United States Navy supplements the 
work of the Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey in chartmaking by providing 
both for the United States naval 
vessels, and for all mariners who 
have use for them, charts of the 
coasts of all the world. 



lished. The information given in 
this journal is in regard to the cor- 
rection of existing charts, sailing 
directions necessary and essential to 
safe navigation, such as changes in 
lights, buoys, beacons, wrecks and 
shoals. 

The Daily Memorandum comprises 
publication of information affecting 



PHI 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



the immediate safe navigation of 
vessels, which include the presence 
of icebergs, Held ice, derelicts, 
wrecks, missing buoys, etc. This in- 
formation, in addition to being pub- 
lished in the Daily Memorandum, is 
telephoned or telegraphed to the 
various radio stations and sent 
broadcast to all shipping four times 
a day. 

The Hydrographic Bulletin, which 
is issued weekly, totaled for the past 
year _!47,468 copies. It contains 



the vessels of the navy. It furnishes 
free of cost to all other Government 
vessels such charts and publications 
as are requested, and the same ma- 
terial is sold at the cost of printing 
and paper to the merchant marine 
or the public in general. 

By international agreement the 
United States receives from all for- 
eign hydrographic oflices two copies 
of all charts issued by them, and 
supplies to them two copies of all 
charts issued by it. Of all foreign 




WIRE DRAG FOR SURVEYING THE SURFACE OF THE BOTTOM 



many items of interest to seafaring 
people and is an important member 
of the publication family of this 
office. 

One hundred and twenty-four 
hook publications arc issued by the 
Hydrographic Office, which are ac- 
cessary to the maritime public. 
They include such volumes as Amer- 
ican Practical Navigator, List of 
Lights, Intel-national Code of Sig 
Dais, Line of Position Tables. Africa 
Pilot. British Island Pilot. Mediter- 
ranean Pilot, etc. 

The Hydrographic Office supplies 

all charts and navigational publics 
tioiis, whatever their character, to 



hydrographic offices the British Ad- 
miralty is. of course, the largest and 
most efficient. The United States 
has had to depend very largely upon 
charts issued by the British Admi- 
ralty, not only for information but 
for the actual charts themselves, so 
that the number purchased in the 
past year was 19,222. Altogether 
at the end of the fiscal year the 
United states depended upon the 
British Admiralty for 1,494 indi- 
vidual charts of various parts of the 
world. These, however, are rapidly 
being reproduced by the Hydro- 
graphic < mice by a photolithographic 
process on zinc plates. The result 



THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS LSI 




A GREAT BRASS BRAIN— THE WONDERFUL TIDE PREDICTOR 



13! 



nl'R CoINTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Of this reproduction will be both to 
save the purchase price of such 
charts from a foreign government 
and to make the United States inde- 
pendent of any foreign government 
for the supplying of world charts 
to its own navy. 

Navigational charts to the number 
of 123,1^8 and pilot charts to the 
number of 205,226 were published 



on a large scale and covering the 
approaches to the Panama Canal, 
has been issued. Pilot charts are in 
great demand, showing, as they do, 
tracks of just past storms, prevail- 
ing wind directions, compass varia- 
tion and other maritime information, 
making them extremely valuable 
even to a vessel well supplied with 
regulation charts. 




CHART OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN 



by the Hydrographic Office during 

the past year. At the end of the 
year the Hydrographic Office had on 
issue the following charts: 

Hydrographic Office charts 2,281 

Coasl and Geodetic Survey charts 664 

British Admiralty charts 1.4!>4 

Total 4,4:5!) 

The iiii.it charts arc published 
monthly Cor the North Atlantic, 
North Pacific and Indian Oceans 
and quarterly Cor the South Allan 
tie and South Pacific Oceans. In 
addition to these a new pilot chart 
of Central American waters, printed 



Sixteen branch Hydrographic Of- 
fices are maintained, located as fol- 
lows: Boston, New York. Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore, Norfolk. Savannah, 
New Orleans. Galveston, San Fran- 
cisco, Portland. Ore., Seattle, Du- 
luth, Sault Sainte Marie, Chicago, 
Cleveland and Buffalo. 

In addition to these there are 52 
agents in the United states, located 
in .'IT cities and towns, and 12 agents 
in foreign countries for the sale of 
Hydrographic Office publications. 

The branch Hydrographic offices 
are engaged in collecting and dis- 



THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 133 




TAKING UP SAMPLES OF BOTTOM WITH HAND REEL 



tributing hydrographic information. 
They endeavor to give assistance to 
officers and men of merchant vessels 
both as to data pertaining to the 
seas traveled and personal instruc- 
tions in navigation. The popularity 
of the work of assistance rendered 
by these branch offices is shown by 
the large number of ship captains, 
agents, pilots and other seafaring 
men who visited the several branch 
offices during the year. In 1915 
there was a total of 40,646 visitors 
and over 26,000 telephone calls, 
relative to correct chronometer time 
and other items of nautical informa- 
tion were answered. 

A large supply of all charts issued 
by the office is kept on file in the 
main office in Washington. Sending 
these out on demand is a very im- 
portant work of the Hydrographic 



Office, since to issue a chart not up 
to date in any and every particular 
might cost many lives and the loss 
of much property. 

Thus no chart is sent out until it 
has been corrected to date and by 
hand with all alterations made 
necessary by changes in lights, new 
information in regard to depth, the 
presence of wrecks or other obstruc- 
tions to navigation, etc. As an in- 
dication of the size of this work it 
may be mentioned that during the 
fiscal year there were transferred 
from old to new copies of charts 
some 18,000 corrections, and handled 
by requisition or for plotting and 
reference about 9,000 charts. In- 
cluding new issues the total number 
of copies of charts printed during 
the year was 328,484. 




COAST GUARD BURNING A COSTON LIGHT 



CHAPTER XL 

GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF LIFE AND 
PROPERTY AT SEA 



BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES. 



HAVING the greatest coast- 
line in the world, the United 
States also occupies the proud 
position of having the largest, finest 
and most competent lighthouse es- 
tablishment in the world. Not yet 
has it reached the full flower of 
perfection which will obtain when 
the ideal of the service is realized — 
lighthouses so numerous and so well 
placed that it will be impossible for 
a coastwise vessel to sail out of the 
radiance of one without coming into 
view of the next. But great prog- 
ress has been made toward this end, 
and the building, both of structures 
and of traditions, of apparatus and 
of the service itself, has been so well 
and carefully done that the service 
is a permanent asset not only to all 
our own shipping, but to the ship- 
ping of the world. 

Moreover, to the credit of the 
country be it said, there are no 
"light dues" which any foreign or 
domestic vessel must pay. Uncle 
Sam lights his coasts and says in ef- 
fect to all who go down to the sea 
in ships. "The light I give you for 
your safety is emblematic of this 
land — it is free." 

Just how big the establishment 
must be is realized more easily by 
considering the enormous size of 
coast line than in any other way. 
Measured in steps of thirty miles it 
is huge: measured in steps of three 
miles, which go into and out of a 
multitude of bays, coves, shelters, 
inlets, etc., it is enormous. The 



table on page 136 shows just how 
big it really is. 

To protect such a coast line re- 
quires an infinite variety of warn- 
ing devices, and a great number of 
each. There are 1,G62 lights other 
than the 2,s,",7 so-called minor lights, 
53 stations on which are maintained 
light vessels, commonly called light- 
ships, 470 gas buoys, and 124 Boat 
lights, a total of 5,155 lighted aids 
to navigation. 

The unlighted aids to navigation 
are scarcely less important and even 
greater in number. Five hundred 
and twenty-seven fog signals blare 
raucously in fog and mist. 50 sub- 
marine signals give their peculiar 
warnings. S6 unlighted whistling 
buoys and 237 unlighted bell buoys 
give their mournful notes. 2,00] (lay- 
beacons show the way and 6, 188 
other buoys mark channels and 
shoals, a total of 9,389 unlighted 
aids to navigation and a grand total 
of 14,544 aids to navigation of all 
kinds. These and other statistics 
here given are as of June 30, 1915. 

It is evident that the lighthouse 
establishment of the United States 
must require considerable money to 
conduct and the able efforts of a 
fair army of people. The appropria- 
tion for the maintenance of the ser- 
vice for 1910 was $5,164,030, which 
included $250,000 for new lighthouse 
tenders. Of the balance, $2,775,000 
will go for general expenses and the 
rest for salaries and pay. 

The service is divided into nine- 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



i::<; 



OUK COUNTRY AND TTS RESOURCES 



TOTAL SrJA COAST LINE UNDER JUKISDICTION OF THE DNITBD STATES 





General 
coast line 
in steps of 

30 miles 


Detailed 

coast or 

channel line 

in steps of 

3 miles 




Statute miles 

3.480 

1,404 

374 

2,520 

7,300 

788 

86 

76 


Statute miles 
9,732 




3,294 


Porto Rico, adjacenl United states islands, and Guantanamo 
Great Lakes and connecting waters, United states portion.. 


449 

4,020 

22,654 




1,018 




92 




91 






Total coast line under United States Lighthouse Service 

Coastal rivers on which aids to navigation are maintained 

by the United States Lighthouse Service (Atlantic and 

Gulf coasts, 1,374 miles; Pacific coast, 242 miles) 

Interior rivers on which aids to navigation are maintained 
by the United States Lighthouse, Service (Mississippi 
River, 1.920 miles; Ohio River, 907 miles; Missouri River. 


16,028 


41,350 
1,616 

4.226 






Total coast line and rivers under United States Light- 




47.192 






Philippine Islands 'lighted by Philippine Government) 


4,080 

17 

17.005 


11.571 

40 






Total seacoast line under the jurisdiction of the United 


4S.SS1 



teen districts, each with its own in- 
spector and force. In the Bureau at 
Washington and the nineteen dis- 
tricts, there are 12.'! inspectors, en- 
gineers, draftsmen, mechanicians, 
etc., 145 clerks, messengers, janitors 
and office laborers, 71 depot keep- 
ers and assistants, 1.171 lighl keep 
ers and assistants. Lil'i; laborers in 
charge of minor lights, 1,556 labor- 
ers in charge of post lights and 
buoys, 12 custodians Of reservations. 
1,605 Officers and crews on tenders 
and light vessels. 278 employees of 
the field force for construction and 
repair (registered) and .".ii7> of the 
same unregistered, a total of 5,792 
employees. 

Forty-four depots are maintained 
iii the various districts for storage 
and distribution of supplies, repairs 
to apparatus, scraping and painting 
of buoys, and similar purposes. 
Forty-six lighthouse tenders carry 
supplies to and from the various de- 
pots, supply lighthouses which can- 



not otherwise be reached with food, 
coal, fuel oil and supplies, put down 
and take up buoys, attend beacon 
and fog signals, and in general keep 
the aids to navigation where they 
belong and performing their duties. 
During the year these forty-six ves- 
sels steamed a total of 469,000 nau- 
tical miles. 

The fifty-three light vessel sta- 
tions are kept supplied with ships 
from the total tleet of GO light ves- 
sels. Thirty-five <>f these are steam- 
ers. •_".> are sailing vessels. 

The service is one of warning and 
of aid to navigation, yet its crews 
have always co-operated witli the 
Life Saving Service I now incorpor- 
ated in the Coast Guard) or taken 
the initiative where necessary in the 
saving of life and property. It is 
merely incidental but none the less 
worthy of note that during the year 
on 1 1.". occasions, services were ren- 
dered in the saving of life or prop- 
erty by employees of the service. 




CAPE HATTERAS LIGHT STATION CAPE CHARLES LIGHT STATION. VA. 

MINOT'S LEDGE LIGHT STATION, MASS. POINT REYES LIGHT STATION, CALIF. 
THE PROTECTORS OF THE FAIRWAYS OF COMMERCE 



PKOTKCTInX . i ' l..\ 



139 




The service publishes a greai 
many different booklets, which in- 
clude six light lists for the various 
coasts and rivers, buoy lists for each 
of its nineteen districts, a weekly 
"Notice to Mariners." of which al- 
most 200,000 copies are distributed 
yearly, a monthly lighthouse ser- 
vice bulletin, for employees, etc. 

The ideals and esprit de corps of 
the service are of the highest, and 
the efficiency of the various crews, 
their pride in their work, and their 
determination to "keep the light 
burning" make of the service one 
which is literally the standard of 
the world. • 

THE COAST GUARD 

On J a n u a r v 
28, 1915, the 
Coast Guard Act 
was passe d, 
merging into one 
great service two 
which had previ- 
ously served the 
maritime world 
together, but un- 
der separate administration. 

The Revenue Cutter Service was 
originally established in 1790, at the 
second session of the First Congress, 
upon the recommendation of the first 
Secretary of the Treasury, as the re- 
sult of the need for the services of 
a coast patrol for the enforcement of 
the customs laws and an organized 
armed force for the protection of the 
sea coast, there being at that time 
no naval establishment. 

The Life Saving Service was not 
the creation of a single legislative 
act, but the result of a series of en- 
actments dating back to 1848, which 
had in view the preservation of life 
and property from shipwreck. In 
1871 a definite life-saving system 
was inaugurated and administered 
in conjunction with the Revenue 
Cutter Service until June 18, 1878, 
when Congress established the Life 
Saving Service as a separate organi- 
zation. 

As the Life Saving Service was 
maintained for the purpose of sav- 



ing life and property along tho coast, 
and as one of the principal functions 
of the Revenue Cutter Service in 
time of peace was to perforin simi- 
lar duties on the seas, the two ser- 
vices necessarily co-operated with 
and supplemented each other to a 
Considerable extent in this work of 
conservation. It became apparent 
that closer co-ordination and increas- 




GETTING READY A SUBMARINE MINE 
WITH DRY GUN COTTON 



ed efficiency would result from the 
union of both services in one or- 
ganization. The result is the pres- 
ent Coast Guard. 

The duties of the Coast Guard are 
so many and various that its own 
most condensed report requires 
three hundred and ten closely print- 
ed pages. It saves life at sea and 
assists wrecked persons. It cares 
for mariners in distress and hoards 
ships and examines papers for viola- 
tions of law. It seizes vessels violat- 
ing the law or makes report of such 
violation, patrols regattas, removes 
derelicts, saves property, enforces 
neutrality, patrols for ice and pro- 
tects seals. It warns vessels of dan- 
ger, recovers and buries bodies cast 
up, fights forest tires, and tires in 
wharves and shipping. It belps 
maintain public order, apprehends 
law breakers and prevents suicides. 
It recovers stolen property, restores 



140 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




CUTTERS PUMPING OUT A WATERLOGGED BARK STRANDED AT LOST HARBOR 

ALASKA 



lost children t<> parents, furnishes 
transportation to other branches of 
the public service and acts as pilot 
in eases of emergency. So active 
is (his splendid service that during 
the year just passed there were but 
five days when some unit of the ser- 
vice whs aot actively engaged in 
wreck or rescue work and the aver- 
age day's work w:is the rendering of 
assistance of some variety in more 
than six cases. 

All that a marine police patrol 
can do, the Coast (Jnard does: all 
that a Life Saving Service can do, 
the Coast Guard does. 



The Coast Guard possesses 24 
cruising cutters, 18 harbor cutters, 
and 270 coast stations. The activ- 
ities of the year resulted in the sav- 
ing of 1,507 lives, and the saving of 
vessels and cargoes valued at $11,- 
088,730, as well as 556 cases of as- 
sistance rendered not catalogable as 
of either life or property. 

The total expenditures for both 
branches of the Coast Guard totaled 
$5,027,752.71. Other Government de- 
partments and Bureaus occasionally 
return a surplus to the Treasury— 
the Post Office has done so and the 
Patent Office does so regularly. But 




A STANDARD SURF BOAT LAUNCHED THROUGH BREAKERS 
A COAST GUARD STATION AND LIFE BOAT AT SQUAN BEACH, N. J. 



142 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



mi mailer how valuable in money the 
saving effected by other Governmen- 
tal activities may be, few if any 
bureaus can point to so clean cut a 
record as this actual rescue work of 
property, otherwise a total loss, val- 
ued at nmre than twice the cost of 
the whole service, and throw in the 
lives saved of the population of a 
small town for good measure! 

It is the business of a Coast 
Guard cutter to get rid of derelicts 
whenever they are encountered, and 
frequently their duty to hunt up 



violations, involving lines totaling 
$220,500. Thirty-seven race courses 
were patrolled, for the protection of 
life and property. The fur seal 
pat ml in the North Pacific and Ber- 
ing Sea is in the hands of the Coast 
Guard, which keeps three vessels on 
duty during the summer months, and 
two do ice patrol duty to locate ice- 
bergs and held ice in the Atlantic 
steamship lines, to give warnings to 
trans-Atlantic vessels and prevent 
loss of life and property. 
The Coast Guard has its own 




BLOWING UP A SUNKEN MENACE TO NAVIGATION BY MEANS OF 
SUBMARINE MINES 



derelicts reported. Last year 26 

were either blown up or towed to 
port and turned over to their own- 
ers. Involving the saving of $161,000 
in properly and saving who knows 
what lives or property in preventing 
these obstructions to navigation 
from doing damage. 

The enforcement of the navigation 
laws led to the boarding and exami- 
nation of 24,S17 vessels during the 
year, resulting in 77"J reports for law 



academy, located at New London, 
Connecticut, where, after severe 
competitive examinations, young 
men are given a course in train- 
ing which compares not unfavorably 
with both Annapolis and West Point. 
Including practice cruises upon the 
culler "Itasca." 

In addition to its other work, the 
Coast Guard works in conjunction 
with the Board of Life Saving Ap- 
pliances, which considers new inven- 



PROTECTION AT SEA 



1 i:; 



tions and devices and makes recom- 
mendations as to their adoption or 
development. 

It is not to be expected that i.n 
every case where a wreck occurs 
or assistance is rendered, a com- 
plete success can be had. But the 
proportion of lives saved over lives 
lost is very large. During the year 
just passed, 84 disasters within the 
scope of the service were attended 
with loss of life. In every such 
case, according to law, an immediate 
investigation was made, with the 
inspiring result that in no case 
was loss of life chargeable to negli- 
gence or failure of the service, but 
to circumstances beyond human 
control. 

It would require more pages than 
there are words here available to 
describe in detail even the more im- 
portant accomplishments and activ- 
ities of the Coast Guard, but the 
following summary perhaps repre- 



sents its work as well as it is pos- 
sible to do in tabular form. 




DIVER FROM CUTTER DESCENDING TO 
OLD DOMINION 3.S. "MONROE" 



COAST GUARD WORK FOR YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1915. 



Lives saved or persons rescued from peril 

Persons on board vessels assisted 

Persons in distress cared for 

Vessels boarded and papers examined 

Vessels seized or reported for violation of law 

Fines and penalties incurred by vessels reported 

Regattas and marine parades patrolled, in accordance with law 

Vessels to which assistance was rendered 

Instances of miscellaneous assistance 

Derelicts and obstructions to navigation removed or destroyed 

Value of vessels assisted (including cargoes) 

Value of derelicts recovered and delivered to owners 

Appropriations for 1915, including repairs to cutters and establishing 
stations: 

Revenue-Cutter Service $2. 536, 716. 25 

Life-Saving Service 2,550,525 . 36 

Net expenditure for maintenance for 1915: 

Revenue Cutter Service $2,530,371 17 

Life-Saving Service 2,497,381 .54 



1,507 

10,952 

813 

24,817 

772 

$220,500.00 

37 

1,504 

556 

26 

$10,927,730.00 

$161,000.00 



$5,089,241.61 



Total for Coast Guard. 



$5,027,752 71 




APPRENTICES ENGAGED IN EXAMINING A LOCOMOTIVE UNDER COMPETENT 

INSTRUCTION 




AN AIR BRAKE INSTRUCTION CAR 



CHAPTER XII. 
RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 



WITH the exception of the ag- 
ricultural and manufactur- 
ing industries, the railroads 
ot the United States occupy the at- 
tention of a larger number of people 
and give employment to more men 
than any other industry- 

To consider so vast a subject in 
a short space it is necessary to sep- 
arate it into only its most important 
divisions. This chapter, therefore, 
will deal with the railroads of the 



mon consent of all railroad men. into 
three classes. Class I. includes the 
183 railroads which have operating 
revenues in excess of one million dol- 
lars, Class II. includes the 2S5 rail- 
roads which have operating revenues 
less than one million dollars, but 
more than one hundred thousand 
dollars, and Class III. includes the 
431 railroads which have operating 
revenues of less than one hundred 
thousand dollars. 




Copyright, 1912, by Irving Underbill 
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE PENNSYLVANIA TERMINAL AT NEW YORK IS 

MOST IMPRESSIVE 



United States under headings of 
"Physical Aspects," "Financial," 
Public Service," "Human Rela- 
tions," closing with a short refer- 
ence to the street railways of the 
various cities of the country. 

There are altogether in the United 
States 899 railroad companies. These 
are divided, both by the Interstate 
Commerce Commission and by com- 



The majority of the statistics dis- 
cussed in this chapter are of roads 
of Class I. only. These Class I. 
roads, however, are vastly in the ma- 
jority as far as mileage and im- 
portance are concerned. Of the ap- 
proximately 266,000 miles of track. 
229.000 of it is operated by Class 
I., 20,000 by Class II., and from 
16,000 to 17,000 by Class III. 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



i it; 



nrit COUNTRY A.\D ITS RESOURCES 



Statistics for this chapter have 
been gathered from many sources, 
the principal ones being the reports 
of the interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion, the reports of the Bureau of 
Railway Economics, and the reports 
of the Bureau of Railway News and 
statistics, inasmuch as these three 
statistical gathering organizations 
frequently cover the same subject by 
statistics from a dissimilar Dumber 
of sources, they do not always agree 
in detail, but, in the main, they agree 
iu almost every particular. 

PHYSICAL ASPECTS 

Track 
Four hundred and forty-eight op- 
erating companies, including all of 
('lass I. and almost all of (Mass II., 
render reports covering 247,812 miles 
of track, of which 1.913 miles go 
through Canada and 52 miles into 
Mexico. of this mileage 11,000 
miles were operated under trackage 
rights, leaving 236,600 miles as the 



real physical mileage of the country. 
• in a basis of the 1914 reported pop- 
ulation of 98,372,266 this means thai 
for every 390 people in the United 
States there is a railroad mile of 
line. 

Railroad construction in this coun- 
try is on the decrease rather than 
the increase. Eight hundred and 
ninety-eight miles were huilt in 1915 
against 1,531 miles in 1914. These 
figures are for main line tracks. In- 
cluding auxiliary tracks, sidings, 
etc., 1,31!) miles were huilt in 1915 
as against 2.12(1 built in 1914. This 
new construction was the smallest 
within half a century and reflects in 
a most comprehensive manner the ef- 
fect of the industrial depression re- 
sulting from the European War on 
this country in 1915. Since the panic 
of 1893, the largest railway mileage 
was built in 1902, when over 6,000 
miles of new track was constructed. 
The total track constructed since 
ls<J3, including 1015. is M,529 miles. 



380 


























































































































































if) 

(u 550 






































































































*> 




















































c 
o 

iD 

O 

.£ 300 










































































































































































































c 








































































































_l 




















































° 250 
in 






































































































- 




















































^> 








































































































20O 







































































































IS90 le 95 1900 1905 l9tO 

RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES 
'I'lic apparent decrease in 1915 is due t<> the use of figures From private sources, 
Bgares no! being available. *<•>■ page I IT 



1915 



UAILROAKS OV THE UNITED STATES 



I 17 



The most recent official figures are 
those of the Interstate Commerce 
Commission for 1014, which gives 
for tiie whole country a total of all 
tracks of 387,208 miles. This in- 
cludes yard tracks, sidings, fourth, 
third, second and single track as 
well as main line mileage. The 1915 
statistics, gathered by private 
sources make the total for the coun- 
try 370,344 miles, including the 
same tracks as are given in the In- 
terstate Commerce Commission fig- 
ures. 



fives there are 303 electric locomo- 
tives operating upon steam roails in 
the 1'nited States. These are of all 
sizes, hut it is of interest to note 
that the world's largest and most 
powerful freight locomotive is driven 
by electricity. It is used to haul 
trains over the Rockies from Mon- 
tana into Idano and the electricity 
used is generated by water power. 
The length of the locomotive is 
112i/ 2 feet and it weighs 2s4 tons. 
Compare this to the average weigh! 
in tons of the steam locomotives of 




THE SAFETY FIRST TRAIN OF THE B. & 0. 
Shows the possibility of the railroad for exhibition purposes. 



LOCOMOTIVES 

Fpon these miles of tracks there 
are running to-day upward of 65,000 
locomotives. These engines possess 
tractive power of 2.004,321,000 
pounds, a weight so inconceivable 
that only a comparison can make it 
evident. If it were possible to hang 
at the end of a long rope, passing 
over a pulley, as many huge ships 
as would balance the pull in pounds 
of these locomotives it would require 
more than twenty-one vessels each 
the size and displacement of the ill- 
fated "Lusitania" to equal the com- 
bined effort <>f the locomotives of 
the United States! 

In addition to the steam locomo- 



the United States, which in 1915 
was S4.2 tons. 

CARS 

The locomotives of the United 
States haul 54,378 passenger cars 
and 2,362,914 freight cars. These 
have a capacity of 94,995,821 tons. 
an average of 40.2 tons per car. It 
is interesting to look back to the 
census of 10()2 and find that in that 
year the average ton capacity of a 
car was but 28. Of the passenger 
cars 10.S41 are all steel construc- 
tion, 4,334 steel underfranie. and 39,- 
203 cars are yet of w 1 construc- 
tion. The total seating capacity of 
all passenger cars is 2,277, 138, an 
average of 56 passengers per car. 



J4S 



QUE COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



While the value of equipment, of 
course, varies widely with tne mails 
buying it and the service for which 
it is adapted, it may be interesting 
to note the prices paid for equip- 
ment. A locomotive, in 1013, of 
average size and hauling capacity 
cost !?2:u:;."). a chair car $11,580, a 
parlor car $17,019, a dining car 
$20,227, a coach $12,300. a baggage 
car $11,185, a mail car $10,001, and 
a cafe car, $18,381. This would 
make the total price of a train so 



into box cars, flat cars, stock cars, 
coal cars, tank cars, refrigerator 

cars and others. Of tne freight ears 
in use in 1914 by Class I. and Class 
II. roads mi ire than one million were 
box cars. 140,000 were flat cars. 82,- 
900 were stock cars, 9uO,UOO were 
coal cars, s.500 were tank cars. 48,- 
800 were refrigerating cars, and mis- 
cellaneous cars made up the balance 
of 97,000. 

Just how important freight cars 
are to this country is more easih 




A SPLENDID EXAMPLE 0E ELECTRIFICATION ON A TRUNK LINE. C. M. & ST. P. 



made up $130,797, although, of 
course, few. if any. trains have so 
many varieties of rolling stock be- 
tween engine and rear. 

To the average traveler the pas 
senger car and baggage equipmenl is 
the important thing. To the country 
as a whole, however, the freight cars 
are the vital element in railroad 
operation. 

To the public all freight cars are 
freight cars pure and simple, but 
to the railroad man they are divided 



illustrated by a comparison of the 
cars abroad than in any other man- 
ner. In twenty-four countries of Ku 
rope there are 369,9] 1 passenger cars 
against 54,378 in this country. In 
the same twenty-four countries there 
are 3,443,532 freight cars against 
•-'..•itiL'.'.ut freighl cars in the United 
states. Passenger traffic is appar- 
ently much more important in Eu- 
rope than it is here, or perhaps it 
would be more truthful to say that 
our huge territory and vast expanse 



RAILROADS. OP THE UNITED STATES 



140 



makes transportation of goods by 
train a more vital necessity here 
than anywhere else in the world. 

FINANCIAL 

The money invested in railroads, 
the dividends paid, the gross and 
net income, the wages and salaries 
disbursed, form such incredible sums 
that only a real appreciation of the 
vastness of this country can make 
their comprehension possible. 

Perhaps the most amazing facts 
are found in a comparison of Ameri- 
can financial statistics with those of 
Europe. Travelers have so dinned it 
into the ears of Americans that as 
a nation we are spendthrifts and 
extravagant that it comes with the 
force of a decided shock to learn 
how far we have beaten the older 
countries in railroading. 

MILE COST 

According to 1914 statistics, 
America had 244,253 miles of rail- 
roads as against Europe's 198,554. 
The capital cost of European lines 
was $25,059,644,xs9, while America 
paid but $15,917,192,925. These fig- 
ures reduce to $126,211 as the cost 
per mile of line for Europe, which 
includes not only the low cost of 
railroads of Norway and Sweden, 
but the exceptionally high costing 
and magnificent road beds of Eng- 
land. The United States figures re- 
duce to $05,160 per mile of line. In 
other words, we have some thirty 
per cent greater mileage at some 



forty per cent less cost than Europe, 
and these are facts in face of a 
scale of wages double that of the 
European standard, and higher rates 
for borrowed money. 

CAPITALIZATION 

According to the "Bureau of Rail- 
way News and Statistics," 448 oper- 
ating companies, covering 247.312 
miles of line, of which 18S,247 
were owned and 59,005 miles were 
leased, reported a capitalization as 
given at the bottom of the page. 

NEW CAPITAL 

In 1914 over $300,000,000 of new 
capital was invested in extensions, 
improvements and new construction. 
But 1915, a year of great uncertain- 
ty due to conditions abroad, saw less 
than $100,000,000 similarly em- 
ployed. What 1910 will show is as 
yet unknown, but with the tremen- 
dous increase in the business of this 
country and the almost unprece- 
dented call for transportation facil- 
ities, it is scarcely to be doubted 
that much new financing will be ar- 
ranged. 

VALUATION OF RAILROADS 

When Congress appropriated 
$50,000,000 to conduct an inquiry 
into and to establish the actual phys- 
ical valuation of American railroads, 
many uninformed people dubbed the 
national legislature wildly extrava- 
gant. But four years have passed, 
the end of the work is nowhere in 
sight, and it may well not arrive 



CAPITALIZATION OF 448 COMPANIES OPERATING 247,312 MILES OF LINE 

IN 1915 

Capital stock $7,277,410,880 

Funded debt 10,466,465,240 

Receivers' certificates 52,362,863 

Total 188,247 miles owned $17,796,238,983 

Rental 59,065 miles, $1 16,852, 303^ at 4J^ 2,596,717,844 

Total 247,312 miles operated $20,392,956,827 

Deduction 

Railway stock owned $2,716,852,149 

Funded debt owned 1,970,496,754 

k Miscellaneous securities owned 2,525,950 4,689,874,853 

Net capitalization, 1915 $15,703,081,974 

Net capitalization per mile operated 63,495 

Net capitalization per mile of track (379.344) 41.393 



150 



OUR COUNTRY AND its RESOURCES 



until an additional appropriation is 
made. 

While no very exact figures are ob- 
tainable, it is doubtful if the present 
actual value of American railways 
can be much less than the unthink- 
able suiri <>f $22,000,000,000, which 
would certainly not hear out any 
charges of over-capitalization. More- 
over, official figures of valuation of 
railroads within certain areas, con- 
ducted by several States, go far to 
prove that roads are anything but 
over-capitalized. For instance. State 
valuations made in Washington 
( L905 i gave the cost of reproduction 
as 1!)4 millions, capitalization 161 
millions. South Dakota (190S) cost 
of reproduction 106 millions, capital- 
ization 109 millions. Minnesota 
i 1907) oust of reproduction 360 mil- 
lions, capitalization 300 millions. 
Wisconsin (1909) cost of reproduc- 
tion 296 millions, capitalization 225 
millions. Nebraska (1911) cost of 
reproduction 327 millions, capitali- 
zation L't;:; millions. New Jersey 
i 1911 t cost of reproduction 374 mil- 
lions, capitalization 333 millions. 



WHO OWNS TITF RATUtOADS 
Railroads are owned in two ways 
— by those who purchase or other- 
wise become possessed of stock, and 
those who lend money to buy, build, 
or extend railways, by the purchase 
of bonds. In the final analysis, a 
railway is owned by its stock hold- 
ers, who owe the ruoney represented 
by the outstanding bonds to tbe 
bond holders, hut for ordinary pur- 
poses of comparison a bond holder 
is a part owner of a railroad, since 
bis interest charges have a claim on 
earnings prior to the stock dividend 
claim. An exact census of stock 
holders is not a possibility, for many 
reasons, one of them being the fre- 
quent (hourly) changes in owner- 
ship. But according to the best re- 
ports obtainable, there are some 
623,000 stock holders for American 
railroads, a figure almost double 
that of the Interstate Commerce 
Commission for 1182 roads in L904. 
It would be wearisome to report 
stock holders and increase for eveuy 
road in the United States, but those 
for twenty of the great roads, show- 



STOCK HOLDERS IN TWENTY PRINCIPAL AMERICAN RAILWAYS, 

1904 TO 1915 



Name of Company 
% 

Pennsj l\ ania R. R 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Pe 

New York Central and Hudson River. . . . 

New York, New 1 1 a \ rii & Hurt ford 

I fnion Pacific 

( treal Norl hern 

soui hern Pacific 

Northern Pacific 

Chicago, Milwaukee? & St. Paul 

Baltimore <\: < >hio 

Illinois < 'entral 

Erie 

( 'hicano & North-Western 

Host on & Maine 

Norfolk & \\ estern 

Delaware & Hudson 

Denver & Rio < Irandc 

M issouri Pacific 

Chesapeake & < >hio 

Louis\ ille & Nashville 

Total 

increase since 1904, per cenl 



Share holders 



1904 


1915 


44,175 


93,332 


17,823 


12.738 


11,781 


25.44U 


10,842 


26,589 


14.25(1 


30, 970 


383 


22, 103 


2,424 


32,143 


368 


20,413 


5,832 


19,230 


7,132 


36,568 


9,123 


10,963 


4,309 


5,868 


4,109 


10,394 


7,402 


8,076 


2,91 1 


8,815 


3,819 


7.1H7 


2, 9 10 


4,618 


1,861 


6.972 


1,478 


6,604 


1,672 


1,703 


154,610 


423,682 




174.0% 



UAILUOADS OF THE UNITED STATES 



151 




A POWDERED COAL BURNING LOCOMOTIVE 



ing the increase from 1904 to 1915, 
are given on page 150. 

Figures for railway bond holders 
are not obtainable, although the 
Comptroller of the Currency report- 
ed in 1913 that more than eleven 
hundred millions of stocks and bonds 
together were held by savings banks, 
State banks, private banks and loan 
and trust companies as assets. 

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE 

Railroad bookkeeping is so intri- 
cate a subject and railroad financing 
is so involved a matter, requiring 
experts who spend years in the work 
for its thorough comprehension, that 
only general figures can be gone into 
here. The Bureau of Railway Econ- 
omics summarizes the income ac- 
count as on page 152, including only 
Class I. roads. 

MISCELLANEOUS FINANCIAL 

The railroads of the United States 
pay a generous proportion of the na- 



tion's taxes. The official figures for 
1914 show that the huge sum of 
$1^0,531,575 was turned into the 
various treasuries from all the rail- 
roads, a percentage of 4.01 of the 
earnings. The taxes amount to 
$."(71! per mile of road, more than 
double the tax of 1900 and almost 
three times the tax of 1890 when 
$199 was the tax per mile. The 
relative proportion of tax to earn- 
ing capacity, however, has not risen 
so fast. In 1S90 2.9G per cent of 
earnings were paid in taxes, while in 
1914 the amount had only increased 
to 4.61 per cent as above. In New 
Jersey railroads pay $3,068 per mile 
of line, in South Dakota but $255. 

It is interesting to compare the 
relative prices paid for fuel and the 
amount expended during the last fif- 
teen years, for the measure of fuel 
used is a measure of the power ex- 
pended. Unofficial figures for 1915 
place the cost of locomotive fuel at 




HELD GATE BRIDGE, OVER THE EAST RIVER, LONGEST ARCH BRIDGE YET BUILT 



152 < >UB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 

$215,359,532, which is considerably road receives comes from the sources 

less than the official figures for 1914, shown on page 153. 

which are $242,800,799. Fifteen public service 

years ago but $90,593,965 was paid Passengers 

for fuel, although the cost of coal ,„, *, „ 0/ w,,wwv 

per ton at the mine was $1.04 in Tbere av * upwards of 3,000,000 

1900 and but $1.18 in 1914. The T M,lla, : e ***** f territory in the 

1915 cost was less, compared with '"nolo , eS *£? m °™ ^ 

operating expenses, than at any time 1^.000.000 people If every man 

for fifteen years, which may indi- ™ n , *?* , clnld m tlu \ l '',' ^ 

cate that the new campaign for econ- States had taken a journey in 1915, 

omy of operation and coal saving has according to unofficial figures, that 

had a visible effect 3 £ u ™? y woul< * have bee * one t of 

slightly more than .!.!.•> miles. Ac- 

the hailkoai/s money cording to the Interstate Commerce 

Every one hundred dollars a rail- Commission figures for 1914, the 

RAILWAY INCOME, FISCAL YEAR, 1915: 

Railway operating revenues $2,870,913,815 

Railway operating expenses 2,020,823,953 

Net operating revenue 850.089,862 

Railway tax aeeruals 133,219.085 

Uncollectable railway revenues 649,921 

Railway operating ineome 716,220,856 

Miscellaneous operating income 1,874.357 

Total operating ineome 718,095,213 

Non-operating income 237,368,878 

Gross income 955,464.091 

Deductions from gross income: 

Interest on funded debt 386.483,143 

Interest on unfunded debt 28,401,357 

All other deductions 227,589,566 

Total deductions 642.474,066 

Net income 312,990,025 

Disposition of net income: 

Dividend appropriations 169.563,440 

Income appropriated for investment in physical property 20,807,042 

( >ther Income appropriations 12,890,736 

Total appropriations of income 203, 261.218 

Balance to credit of profit and loss 109.72S.807 

The source of revenue ami tin- disposition is shown in the following 

tabic : 

RAILWAY OPERATING REVENUES, FISCAL YEAR, 1915: 

Freight $1,977,402,839 

Passenger service train revenue 783,401 J 

Passenger 629. 155.489 

Mail 56,949,414 

Express 68,942,809 

All Other rail-line transportation 36.718,310 

Total rail-line transportation 2,797,522,501 

Wain- line transportation 13.034. 048 

incidental operating revenue 5s.os9 968 

Joint facility credit balance 2,266.698 

Total operating revenues $2,870,913,815 

RAILWAY OPERATING EXPENSES, FISCAL YEAR, 1915: 

Maintenance of way and structures $363,902,819 

Mai no •nance Of equipment 196,066, 194 

Traffic 59.394.183 

Transportation rail-line 1,()02. 619.070 

Transportation water-line 8,173,995 

Miscellaneous operations 22,869,188 

( ieneral expenses 74,143.669 

Transportation for investment — Cr 6,945,165 

Total operating expenses $2,020,823,953 



KAILKOAI>S OF THE UNITED STATES 



1.-,:; 



average journey per person was 
33.61 miles for Class I. and II. 
roads only. 

The 32,327,4(50.000 theoretical pas- 
sengers who were carried one mile 
in 1915 each paid 2.023 cents for the 
privilege, and the 277,232.653,000 
tons of freight, also carried one 
mile, cost 7.3S mills per mile for the 
hauling ! 

The table on page 154, aranged by 
the Bureau of Railway News and 
Statistics, gives the official figures for 
1914 and the unofficial figures for 1915 
of both freight and passenger service. 



In 1915. 961,000,000 passengers 
were carried. Passenger trains 
rolled up the enormous mileage of 
607,000,000— a distance which would 
carry a passenger three and one- 
quarter round trips to the sun and 
back again ! There were an average 
of 53 passengers to every passenger 
train, and the nine million and some 
passengers paid enough to make a 
passenger revenue of $654,000,000. 
more than double the revenue of 
fifteen years ago and at only a min- 
ute increased cost per mile, the 1900 
figures being $0.0203 per mile. 



THE RAILROAD DOLLAR 
Where it comes from : 

Passengers 22.20 

Products of Mines 23.86 

Manufactures 15.10 

Products of Agriculture 11.72 

Products of Forests 7.00 

Products of Animals 4.15 

Merchandise 4.32 

Miscellaneous freight 3.32 

Mail 1.97 

Express 2.37 

Miscellaneous 3.99 

Every one hundred dollars a railroad disburses is spent for these pur- 
poses in these amounts : 

Lahor $43.20 

Fuel and locomotive supplies 8.12 

Material 16.90 

Loss and damages 2.22 

Taxes 4.72 

Dividends and surplus 5.00 

I'.etterments 1.08 

Rent of leased roads 3.97 

Interest 14.79 




£/ ^ ^ X s 




154 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



FEEIGUT 

In 193 1. Class I. and II. roads 
moved 85,555,053 tons of the prod- 
ucts <if agriculture, 23,763,262 tons 
of animals. 539,255,980 tuns of min- 
ing products, 108,506,272 tons of for- 
est products, 135,175,536 tons of 
manufactured products, 36,519,321 
tons of merchandise and :;s.447.."ii;7 
tons of miscellaneous freight. 

These statistics show the some- 
what curious result that over 55 per 
cent of freight moved in this coun- 
try is from mines and that both for- 
est products and manufacturing 
products form a greater percentage 
of the weight moved than do ag- 
ricultural products. Reducing to a 
unit hasis official figures show that 
in 1914, there were 288,319,890,210 
Ions of freight carried one mile, 
equivalent to the transportation of 
a fleet of Lusitanias numbering 
6,86 1. Toil ; iii other words, an un- 
thinkable number. 

MAIL AND EXPRESS 

In addition to the public service 
of moving passengers and freight. 



the railways haul the mail and the 
express, two activities which are at 
the very lied rock of modern busi- 
ness. The nation pays to the rail- 




CLASS OF FREIGHT MOVED. 1914 

roads the sum of $57,973,106 yearly 
(1915 figures, Bureau of Railway 

News and Statistic-si for carrying 
the mail, and the express companies 
$69,7S4,40s for carrying express, a 
figure by the way, which is declining 



COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF PASSENGER AND FREIGHT SERVICE FOR 
THE YEARS EXDINd JUNE 30, 1915 AND 1014 



Miles Represented 

Passenger Service 

Passengers carried 

Passengers carried 1 mile 

Passengers carried l mile per mile of line 

M ileage of revenue passenger trains 

Vverage number of passengers in train 
Average journey per passenger, miles. . . 

Passenger car miles 

Average passengers per car 

Preigb r Service 

Number of ions reported carried 

Tons carried l mile 

Tonscarried I mile per mile of line 

M ileage of revenue freight t rains 

\ \ erage number of tons In trains 

T\ pica] haul of a\ erase railwaj . miles. . . 

Mileage of revenue mixed trains 

Total revenue train mileage 

Total mileage freight cars 
Vverage tons per car (loaded and emptj 

Total locomotive miles 



L915 

Bureau Figures 



1 
L'77 



247,312 

961,351,000 

,327,466,000 

130,715 

572,103.000 

56.5 

33.6 

,203 881,000 

L0.09 

779,512,000 

232,653,000 

1,120,983 

548 363 ooo 

505 

156 

35,022,000 

155, 189,000 

935, 155,000 

1 3 . 55 



L, 562,839,000 



1914 . 
< Uncial Figures 



245,624 

1,053,139,000 

35,258, 198,000 

1 1 1,278 

602,388,000 

56 

33 61 

283,000 

lit 39 

1,976,138,000 

288,319,890,000 

1,176,923 

605.923, 

452 

146 

32,565.000 

1,242,080,000 

20,796,895,000 

13 86 



1,689,748,000 



t Exclude returns from switching and terminal companies, included in 1915, 1914 
< lass 1. and II. only 



RAILROADS OF THE rXTTKI) STATES 



155 







--■ 


^mm m <*-"*■* 


*t 


m-. 




H5?^r=> 




«■«:. 






-r ,,,; 3^| * 




M~'^ 


[jW^^-^V^^P^' 








- 







TRIPLEX COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE— ARTICULATED MALLET TYPE-ERIE 

RAILROAD 
(Huilt by P.nlilwin Locomotive Works) 



yearly, due to the expansion of par- 
cel post. 

HUMAN RELATIONS 

If we consider the average family 
as consisting of three people, then 
there are 33,333,333 adult males in 
the United States. One man in every 
nineteen is a railroad employee. 

EMPLOYEES 

According to the official figures 
for 1914, there are L,695,483 persons 
employed by the railroads, or 685 
employees for every mile of line. 
These include for each mile of line 
G general and ether officers. 35 
clerks, 15 station agents, GG station 
men. 25 engineers, 26 firemen, 19 
conductors, 55 other trainmen, 23 
machinists. 29 carpenters. 103 shop- 
men, IS section foremen, 135 track- 
men, 15 switch tenders, crossing 
tenders and watchmen, 16 telegraph 
operators and dispatchers and 99 
other employees. 



COMPENSATION 

The railroads disbursed in 1014 
$1,373,422,472 to all employees. Of 
the employees receiving this huge 
sum — about what it cost to run the 
United States Government, including 
the army and navy — the general and 
other officers, of course, received the 
largest average daily compensation, 
of $8.40. 

Next highly paid are the engi- 
neers, with an average daily wage of 
$5.24, followed by conductors, aver- 
age daily wage $4.47; machinists, 
average daily wage $3.27; firemen, 
average daily wage. $3.22; trainmen, 
average daily wage. $3.09, down to 
trackmen with an average daily 
wage of $1.59. It is a peculiar com- 
mentary on the disproportionate re- 
lation between responsibility and 
pay, to learn that the average daily 
wage of carpenters in railroad work 
is $2.66 and that of telegraph ope- 




REPLICA OF THE "DE WITT CLINTON," POSED BEFORE THE MOVING PICTURE 
CAMERA. THE ORIGINAL WAS THE THIRD LOCOMOTIVE IN AMERICA 



156 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




A TRAVELING CHAPEL ON WHEELS. CHAPEL CAR "ST. PETER" 



rators and dispatchers but $2.56. 
According to well digested statis- 
tics, in 2<> years the pay of engineers 
has increased 45 per cent, firemen 
58 per cent, conductors 47 per cent, 
other trainmen 63 per cent. The 
average pay per year of railroad em- 
ployees of all classes is $825, with 
a road passenger engineer averaging 
over $2,000, a road passenger fire- 
man averaging over $1,200, and a 
road passenger conductor averaging 
over $1,700 per annum. Altogether 
twenty-two classes of employees re- 
ceive over $1,000 a year. 

FOREIGN PAY 

The question is of intense interest 
to the general public, because of the 
effect upon the public of railroad la- 
bor dissatisfaction, and the economic 
effect of strikes. Without going into 
any controversy between employees 
and roads or in any way taking 
sides, it is nevertheless interesting 
to compare conditions here with 
those abroad. In (his country, let it 
be noted, the ratio of compensation 
paid employees to gross earnings is 
13 per cent. The ratio of compen- 
sation of employees to the operating 
expenses is <il per cent and the 
total ratio Of all expenses and taxes 

to gross earnings is 7."» per cent. Now 
compare with the table on page 158. 

ACCIDENTS 

The American people have become 
so accustomed to frightful railroad 

accidents thai they have accepted 

largely without question the state- 
ments too often made that no rail- 



roads are so unsafe as those of the 
United States. In the year 1915, 
325 railroad companies operated 
161,948 miles of line, according to 
the Bureau of Railway News and 
Statistics, with absolutely no fatal- 
ities to passengers in train accidents. 
This mileage is very nearly that of 
Europe excluding England. To car- 
ry 18,083,050,000 passengers a mile 
and kill none of them is a real 
record. 

In 1S91 the United States had 
161.275 miles of road, carried 531,- 
1S3.D0S passengers and killed 110 
of them. In 1915, roads operating 
a greater mileage, with 40 per cent 




ROMAN CATHOLIC CHAPEL CAR 



RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 



157 



more tra Sic and double the freight 
traffic, killed none. Three com- 
panies have a flawless record for 
twelve years, 23 for eleven years, :;'.» 
for ten years, 48 for nine years, <;.'! 
for eight years, 77 for seven years, 
87 for six years, 107 for five years, 
136 for four years, 178 for three 
years, 232 for two years, and 11 
companies in 1915, 23 in 1914, and 
15 in 1913 killed only one passenger 
each. 

Ou all roads and in all ways, 
there were 19G passengers killed and 
10,279 injured in 1915. Employees 
on duty were killed to the number 
of 1.594 and 38,060 were injured. 
Two hundred and fifteen employees 
not on duty were killed and 840 in- 
jured, and trespassers, persons not 
trespassers but not connected with 
or traveling upon railways and rail- 
road industrial (accidents not in- 
volving train operation made up the 



balance of the grand total of 8,621 
persons killed and 162,040 injured. 
If you want to know exactly what 




PERCENTAGE OF EMPLOYEES PER MILE 
OF LINE 

your chances are of being killed in 
a railroad accident, supposing fu- 
ture conditions are similar to those 




A NEWSPAPER PLANT INSTALLED IN A BAGGAGE CAR 

A complete photo-engraving plant, composing and pressroom was provided. This was the 

publicity car for an automobile tour 



L58 



01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



SUMMARY SHOWING NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES COMPENSATION' \ND 

AVERAGE YEARLY PAY OF THE PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN 

COUNTRIES AND OF JAPAN 



Country 


Miles of 
Railway 


Employees. 
Number 


Compensation 
per year 


Average 

per year 


Ratio to 
Revenues 


♦United Kingdom (1913). . . 

German Empire (1913) 

Austria (1912) 


23,r,'.»] 

37,894 

14,185 

13,303 

41,622 

24,915 

8,387 

3,148 

2,333 

8,659 

2,200 

2,926 

5,348 


1 643, 135 

786,466 

280.220 

147.194 

771 938 

442 709 

148 569 

15 3s6 

13.198 

48,330 

34.4 22 

70.364 

112.087 


S170.028.613 

321 639 536 

92 439 338 
44 218 935 

163 149 009 

115 125 40O 

52 65 1 .655 

16 697. 901 

4.644.727 

is. .",78.561 

8.523,168 

17.991,907 

12,655,621 


$279 
109 
330 
300 
211 
260 
354 
368 
352 
384 
248 
256 
113 


27 2 
38 
40 1 


Hungary ( 1912) . . 


38 3 


Russia (1910) 


32 7 


France (1908) 


34 4 


Italy (State, 1912) 

Switzerland (All, 1913) 

t Denmark (State, 1914) 

Sweden (1912) 


45.2 
33 . 5 
30.7 
42 8 






Belgium (State, 1911) 

Japan (1914) 


22 :; 







* Of British railway employees, 49,584 are classed as boys, and the compensation 
does not include administrative staff. 
t Excludes laborers. 
X Census 1913. latest reported. 



of 1915, the method is simple enough. 
As there were 389,487,542 passengers 
carried a mile in safety for everj 
one killed in 1915, merely divide 
that number by the miles of your 
journey to find your proportionate 
chance. Tims, if you happen to be 
going a distance of 389 miles, your 
chances are just oue iu a million of 



i ? 

re 
24 



being killed. Ask any accident in- 
surance company what the hazard- 
are in walking a city's streets and 
see how safe American railroads 
really are! 

STREET RAILWAYS 

The term is inclusive of what is 
commonly known as trolley line de- 



i — . 



1890 1895 1900 I905 I9IO 

DEATH PER BILLION PASSENGER MILES 
THE PALLING RATE OF FATALITY IN AMERICAN RY TRAVEL 



RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 



159 









fiff 


i 





THE HAZARDOUS LIFE OF A RAILROAD 
LINEMAN 



velopinent and the statistics given 
include not only city and suburban 
but interurban electric roads. The 
authority is the United States Cen- 
sus for 1912, which provides the 
most recent facts obtainable for the 
industry. 

Nine hundred and seventy-five op- 
erating companies control 41,064 
miles of track. Of this mileage 38,- 
95S miles are for overhead trolley, 
the balance being conduit and all 
other forms of electrical propulsion 
including storage battery and third 
rail. 

City and suburban lines utilize 24,- 
699 miles of track and interurban 
roads 16,365 miles. 

In 1912 these roads carried 12.- 
135,341,716 passengers. Not all 
these produced revenue, 2,423,018,- 

024 riding on transfers and 165,869,- 

025 being carried free. 

The street railways possess 94,- 
016 cars, of which 76.162 are pas- 
senger cars, 7.704 are express. 
freight, mail and baggage cars, and 
10,060 work cars, snow plows, 
sweepers, etc. 

Two hundred and eighty.two thou- 



sand four hundred and sixty-one em- 
ployees of all sorts have a pay en- 
velope holding $200,890,939 per 
year, and it is worthy of note as 
showing the tremendous demand for 
this variety of transportation that 
the number of people so employed 
was 100 per cent greater in 1012 
than in the previous census of 1002. 

The gross income of the 075 com- 
panies in 1012 was $585,030,517, of 
which $51,650,117 was paid out in 
dividends. It is interesting to note, 
in view of the agitation for muni- 
cipal ownership and the cry contin- 
ually going up that street railways 
make huge sums of money by crowd- 
ing ears, that the average passenger 
revenue is 5.27 cents, of which ."..40 
cents must go for operating ex- 
penses. 

The greatest street railway mileage 
is in New York State, which posses- 
ses 4,605 miles against 4.117 in Penn- 
sylvania and 4.060 miles in Ohio. 
The least mileage is in New Mexico, 
which possessed 10.6 miles in 1012, 
followed by Nevada with 11.27. 




Copyright Underwood & Underwood 

PAINTING THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE 



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STEEL MAIL CAR READY TO PICK UP A SACK EN ROUTE 




INTERIOR OF MAIL CAR 



CHAPTER XIII. 
THE POSTAL SERVICE 



NO part of the United States 
Government comes into such 
close and intimate touch with 
its people as the Pest Office Depart- 
ment. No function of our govern- 
ment is more important ; indeed, our 
whole commercial life is bound up 
with the Post Office, and a failure 
of the mail service would mean a 
domestic tragedy compared to which 
a state of war would be trivial. 



York. Boats, stage-coaches, pony 
express — the means of transporta- 
tion available meant delays, uncer- 
tainty and expense. To-day two 
cents will carry an ounce of letter 
to the Philippines, to Alaska, to 
Porto Rico, to Canada, to Mexico, 
to Great Britain and some countries 
of Central and South America, and 
five cents will take half an ounce 
anywhere in the civilized world. 




THE MOTORCYCLE COLLECTOR CAN 
COVER GREAT DISTANCES 



THE AUTO IS A SPEEDY COLLECTOR 



These facts, generally recognized by 
common consent, have been enacted 
into laws governing the mail service 
which make "U. S. Mail" sacred 
property, and the integrity of the 
service a national pride. 

This is not the place for a histori- 
cal n'siunr of the service since its 
formation by the Continental Con- 
gress, but a word or two of the de- 
velopment of the system may not 
be out of place. In 1792 it cost 
seventeen cents to send a letter the 
distance between Boston and New 



Beginning with a pony express for 
letters only, the Post Office Depart- 
ment has extended its activities to 
meet the needs of advancing civili- 
zation until its ramifications and 
activities, while clearly defined, have 
broadened far beyond the mere car- 
rying of letters. 

First of these broadening horizons 
was the registry system by which 
loss of valuables is practically neg- 
ligible. City Delivery in all large 
cities has saved literally billions of 
dollars worth of time. "Special De- 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



102 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



livery" has Saved special time when 
special time is of great value — and 
.ir ;i minimum cost. This was in- 
troduced in 1885 — the faint forerun- 
ner of another system of delivery 
which has had most tremendous and 
far-reaching effects. This, of course. 
is Rural Free Delivery — the familiar 
"R. 1". D." which has so altered 
country living conditions as to make 
them unrecognizable to those who 



sidered to have been spent for two 
cent stamps, then there was pur- 
chased and presumably used in 1915 
the unthinkable total of 12,801,850,- 
4L.'t; two cent stamps, enough for 
every man. woman and child in the 
United States to use on 128 letters 
each during the year! 

Of course the $256,037,008.51 re- 
ceived for stamps and stamped pa- 
per, which was !>2 per cent of the 



NUMBER <>F POST OFFICES liY CLASSES, JULY 1, 1911 TO 1915 



Year 


First 
class 


Second 
class 


Presidential 
Third 
class 


Total 


Fourth 
class 


Total 


1911 


444 

157 

485 
52 1 
533 


1,907 
1,940 
1.979 
2,081 
2,138 


5,643 
5,830 
5,942 
6,044 

(1.2-49 


7,994 

8,227 

S.406 
8,646 
8,920 


51,287 
50.502 
19,614 

48.1 lit 
17,160 


59,281 


1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 


58,729 
58,020 
56.810 
50.380 



knew them best. Next came the 
Postal Savings system, and finally 
Parcel Post, so thai our Post Office 
Department is now a banking insti- 
tution, an express company, a special 
carrier, an insurance office, a dis- 
seminator of knowledge (second 
class mail privilege), and an en- 
courage!" of thrift and business as 
well as a mere carriage institution 
for folded pieces of paper. 

POST 0FF1< I s 

The numerical facts about our 
postal system are fairly staggering 
in their size. We have i Report for 
year ending June •".<». 1915) 56,! 380 
i Mist offices, exclusive of 589 in the 
Philippines, under War Department 
jurisdiction, and II on t lie < 'anal 
/.one. Posi offices are slowly de- 
creasing in Dumber, due to the ex- 
tension of the R. 1''. I ». service, as 
shown in the table above. 

STAMPS 

There are no statistics available 
for the number of letters transported 
or delivered, for obvious reasons. 
Bui if tbe total money expended for 
stamps and stamoed paper lie con- 



postal revenue, was not all for two 
cent stamps, but the comparison 
stands. 

SECOND CLASS .MAIL 

Second class mail, consisting of 
newspapers and periodicals mailed 
by the publishers at the uniform rate 
of a cent a pound for all distances 
except within the county of publi- 
cation, where the postage is free, 
amounted to 1,109,285,785 pounds. 
Ten Lusitarlias would not weigh so 
much, nor would five thousand loco- 
motives, all over the average size 
used to pull trains! What this 
service means to us. as an educa- 
tional matter, is beyond computa- 
tion. 

I' \KlT.I, POST 

It is impossible to say of any one 
work of the Post Office Department, 
"This is the most Important," 
Whether parcel post or second class 
mail privilege, postal savings or 
first class mail, foreign mail or R. 
F. D. is most vital is hardly im- 
portant here. But certainly the es- 
tablishment and successful working 
of tbe parcel post system is not 
least important among those great 



164 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



improvements the Postal Service has 
made within recent years. 

Exact statistics of parcels carried 
arc not obtainable. To enable the ' 
department to ascertain the growth 
of the service as well as its revenues 
and costs, periodical counts have 
been made and detailed information 
obtained at all first and second 
class offices and at a number of rep- 
resentative third and fourth class 
offices of the number of parcels 
handled, the amount of postage 
thereon, and the costs of the service. 
Statistics in the minutest detail are 
compiled from these data for the .10 
largest offices, which represent ap- 
proximately one-half of the entire- 
postal business. The latest count. 
from October 1 to 15. 1915, shows 
that 30,939,730 parcels were mailed 
at these offices, on which the postage 
amounted to $1,856,602.82, and the 
total weight atr^regated 41,815,452 
pounds. 

These statistics indicate that the 
Tostal Service is now handling 
1,000.000,000 parcels annually. Dur- 
ing the fiscal year 18.000.000 parcels 
were insured, an increase of 34.78 
per cent over the preceding year. 
The number of parcels sent ('. O. D. 
during the year was over 4.000.000, 
an increase of 57.66 per cent over the 
number handled the previous year. 















































































































































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Number of Routes in Thousands 
Appropriation in Millions of Dollars 

R. F. D. ROUTES AND APPROPRIATION 



RURAL FREE DELIVERY 

Since its establishment In I s '.'" 
the R. F. I>. business has grown by 



FlSI \ 1 Y BAB 


Routes 


Increase in 

routes 


Appropriation 


1897 


82 

1 53 

412 

1,259 

3,761 

8,298 

15,119 

24,566 

32,110 

35.700 

37.728 

39,277 

10,628 

11.079 
41.050 
42.199 

12,805 
43.652 

13,877 


71 
259 
847 
2,502 
4,537 
6,821 
9,447 
7,544 

3.050 

L.962 

1,549 

1,351 

1 5 1 
577 
543 
606 
847 
225 


S40.000 


IS'. IN 


50,250 


1899 


150.032 


1 900 


450.000 


1901 . . 


1,750.790 


[902 


4,089,075 


1903 


8,580,364 


1(10 1 


12,926,905 


L905 


21,1 lo.f.oo 


L906 

1907 


25,828,300 

28.200.000 


1908 


34,900.000 


L909 

1910 


35.073.001) 
37.200.000 


I'll I 


3S S00.000 


I'M" 


42,790,000 


1911 


17.000.000 
17 500.000 


I'M 5 


53 ooo.ooo 







THE POSTAL SERVICE 



165 




Photo International News Servici 



CONVEYING MAIL IN A GREAT RAIL- 
WAY TERMINAL 



leaps and bounds. Begun with 
eighty-two tentative and experimen- 
tal routes, it now has close to fifty 
thousand. Its initial appropriation 
was $40,000. the present appropria- 
tion is ,$53,000,000, most of which, of 
course, goes to pay the 43,718 car- 
riers, the average pay of whom is 
not quite $1,100 annually. 

The table on page 164 gives in 
short form the increase in routes. 

POSTAL SAVINGS 

In January, 1911, the United 
States made its Post Office Depart- 
ment a great bank, by beginning the 
Tostal Savings System. By it peo- 
ple of small means are encouraged 
to save, are provided with a quick 
and easy means of banking, without 
any red tape, are assured the safety 
of their money with all the resources 
and credit of the T'nited States, and 
are given the privilege of converting 
savings into United States bonds 
without trouble, risk or the payment 
of premiums. 











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L66 



OUR COUNTRY AND IIS RESOURCES 



• in June .". , ». 1915, postal savings 
deposits aggregated $65,684,708, a 
gain of $22,240,437, or 51.2 per cent, 
compared with amount on deposil 
at the close of the previous fiscal 
year. The Dumber of depositors in- 
creased from 388,513 t" 525,414, a 
gain of 136,903, or 35.2 per cent. 

The growth of the system from the 
time of it- inauguration on January 
.".. 1911, lo the close of the fiscal 
year ended June 30, 1915, is shown 
in the table on page 165. 

POS I At. SAVINGS BONDS 

A depositor may exchange de- 
posits in amounts of $20 and multi- 
ples for 2% per cent 1'nited States 
postal savings registered or coupon 
bonds. Postal savings bonds were 
issued during the year to the amount 
of $1,799,040. Since the beginning of 
the service $6,260,360 in registered 
and $1,046,740 in coupon postal sav- 
ings bonds have been issued. 

DEPOSITORS 
Depositors born outside of the 



United States constitute 58.7 per 
cent of the total number of deposi- 
tors and own $47,161,620, or 71.8 
per cent of the total postal savings 
deposits. Natives of Russia lead 
with 20.7 per cent of the total pos- 
tal savings deposits to their credit : 
follow in order natives of Italy, 14.2 
per cent. Great Britain and its col- 
onies 8.8 per cent, Austria 8.7 i>er 
cent. Hungary 4..*; per cent. Ger- 
many 4.1 per cent. Sweden -.'J. per 
cent, and Greece, 1.8 percent Other 
foreign-born depositors owned 7 per 
cent of all postal savings deposit-. 

RAILWAY MAIL 

To handle this part of the subject 
in a paragraph is an impossibility. 
Railway post offices are in service on 
216,439 miles of lines and travel 
322,079,796 miles a year. An army 
of 34 officers, 114 chief clerks and 
19,351 railway clerks accomplished 
during the year 8,644,285,506 distri- 
butions and redistributions of pieces 
of first-class and 5,212,698,814 dis- 




THE TRANSPORTATION OF MAIL BY AEROPLANE IS AN ACCOMPLISHED FACT 

Note the Mall Bags 



THE POSTAL SERVICE 



KIT 



tributions and redistributions of 
pieces of second, third and fourth- 
class matter, a total of 13,856,- 
984,320 distributions and redis- 
tributions of pieces, exclusive of 
registered matter, an increase of 3.35 
per cent over the previous year. 

Of registered matter there were 
handled and rehandled in transit 
57.14s.G4S packages and cases. 1.- 
643.657 registered pouches, and 792.- 
950 inner registered sacks. In ad- 
dition, clerks made up and dis- 
patched 1,005,562 registered pouches 
and inner registered sacks : received 



122.447 lead-seal sack jackets: made 
up and dispatched 1,784 Lead-seal 
sack jackets containing 20,265 
pieces; and received and opened 11,- 
451 lead-seal sack jackets containing 
94,367 pieces. 

Of the 13,856,984,320 pieces of 
mail matter distributed and redis- 
tributed. 13,sr>4.405,564 pieces, or 
99.9S per cent, were distributed and 
redistributed correctly. 

DISTANCE OF MAIL TRAVEL 

The Postal Service sends its mail 
carriers of all classes over 12.725 




ROLLER SKATES IN THE CHICAGO POST OFFICE SAVE TIME AND SHOE LEATHER 



and opened 813,266 registered 
pouches and inner registered sacks; 
handled and rehandled in transit 2,- 
391,377 registered-package jackets; 
made up and dispatched 803,779 reg- 
istered-package jackets, containing 
."..".I ir..412 pieces ; received and 
opened 722,517 registered-package 
jackets containing 5,047,663 pieces; 
handled and rehandled in transit 



routes. which aggregate 285,853 
miles in length. All carriers travel 
annually 537,714,199 miles, equal to 
traveling around the earth 21,508 
times. Should one man make this 
journey at the express train rate of 
fifty miles an hour, it would take 
him 1,230 years to cover the (lis 
tance, supposing he never stopped to 
rest ! 



168 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



H(>\V THE POST OFFICE SPENDS ITS MONEY 



! T E M 9 



Compensation to assistant postmaste. 

and clerks 

Transportation of mails on railroads. 

Rural delivery 

City delivery 

Compensation to postmasters 

Railway Mail Service 

Transportation of mails on star routes 

Rant, light, and fuel 

Railway post office car sen ice .... 
Transportation of mails — wagon serv 



Transportation of foreign mails 

Mail-messenger service 

Special delivery service 

Manufacture of stamped envelopes. . . 

Post-office inspectors 

Transportation of mails on steamboats 
Transportation of mails — Pneumatic 

tube service 

Transportation of mails — electric and 

cable cars 

Manufacture of postage stamps 

Freight on stamped paper and mail 

bags. 



Mail bags, etc 

Manufacture of postal cards 

Miscellaneous items at first and second 

class post offices 

Canceling machines 

Twine and tying devices 

Mail transportation in Alaska — star. 
Payment of money orders more than 

1 year old 

Stationery 

Supplies, money-order service 

Supplies, city delivery sen ice 

Indemnities, domestic registered mail. 

Office appliances 

Village delh cry sen ice 

Shipment of supplies 

Letter balances and scales 

Mailbag repair shops — labor 

Official and registry envelopes 

Facing slips, etc 

Miscellaneous, items, 1st and 2d clas 

post offices purchases 

Mail-lock repair shops labor 

stamping appliances 

Rent of buildings. Post Office Dept.. 

supplies, Rural Delivery Service. . . . 

Balances due foreign countries 

Indemnities, lost insured mail 

Expendlt ures under 2 f smaller items of 

appropriation (less than $20, OCX 
each) 



Total $2S9,199.978.75 



On account of 

the fiscal year 

1915 



So 1,246,246.92 

50,192,241 .09 

49,740,895.05 

42,458.002 83 

30,376,378 . 90 

2.S.3N2.25S 

7,822.300 OS 

4,815,766 92 

4,015.024 97 

2,351,817.43 

2,349,815.41 
1,933.042.14 
1,889,725.80 
1,430.682.58 
1,198,181 .66 
927,049.76 

882,583.19 

719.463.71 
652,664 . 40 

428,127.95 

352,203 . 22 
334,549.04 

290,025 78 
251,212.02 

249.966. SI 
228.367 . SS 



20S.023 6.", 
134.192.06 
133,102.03 

129.S6S 46 
128,039 39 

1 16,273.28 

106,366 91 

98,647.09 

94.001 82 
93.071 91 
76,017.26 
74.409.52 

73,95 1 63 

36.726 66 

35,787 92 

24.0OH OH 
12,843 89 

! 570 91 



Kit. 1st <>.- 



On account of 

the previous 

fiscal year 



$70,301 91 

4,544,732 .87 
48.167 82 
35.406 9( 
23.767 02 
25,984 . 33 

956,227.92 
42,158.26 

824,289 . 20 

328,908.48 
811.023.55 
190,224.59 
189 . 36 
141,104.58 
30,978.06 
148,573.93 

80,691 .68 

82,415 33 
76,091 88 

184,631.24 

64,572 25 
36,425 3 1 



48.416.65 
6,872.96 

73,212.44 



8,741.61 
39,583.90 
44.535 73 
20,292.68 

30.256 42 

3,316.45 

29,748.96 

10.615 11 

273 00 

1 1.67(1 62 

5.6S3 2S 

19,628 97 
28.00 

6.216 33 

8.200.00 

3,9 11 II 
98,873. 5S 
69,852.48 



59,1 87. 2> 
89,346,047. 6; 



Total 



$53,316,548.83 

54,736,973.96 

49,789,062.87 

42.493.409.73 

30,400,145.92 

28,408,243 10 

8,778,528.01 

4,857,925.18 

4,839,314.17 

2,680,725.91 
3,160,838.96 
2,123,266 73 
1,889,915. Hi 
1.571,787.16 
1.229,159.72 
1,075,623.69 

963,274.87 

801,879.04 
728,756.28 

612,759.19 
416,775.47 
370,974 . 35 

290.025.78 
299,628.67 

256.839.77 
301,580.32 

208,023 . 65 

142.933.67 

I 72,685. 93 

17 1.404.19 

148,332.07 

1 16.529. 70 

109,683.36 

128.396.05 

104.617.26 

93,347.91 

S7.6S7 SS 

80,092 . 80 

93,583.60 
36.754 66 
42.034.25 
32,200 . 00 
16,788.30 
100,444 49 
69,852.48 



163,671.33 



1298,546,026 . 42 



THE POSTAL SERVICE 



1<J!> 




MAIL TEAMS LEAVING EOR THE TRAILS, INTERIOR OF ALASKA 




CROSSING THE YUKON WITH MAIL AT TANANA MISSION 



17U 



olK COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES 




t .,->^'^ ( 



WHERE THE POSTAL EXPENSES LIE 



REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES 

The total revenues of the Posl 
office are $287,248,165.27, which rev- 
enues arc from sale of stamps and 
stamped paper, postage other than 
stamps, foreign mails. Pox rents, 
tines and penalties, receipts from 
unclaimed letters, money orders and 
postal savings. 

Its expenditures are listed in de- 
tail on page i'"> s . because of the in- 
tense interest of some of the small 
items, and the light they throw on 
the size of the work. Consider, for a 
moment, the business which spends 
over a quarter of a million dollars 
a year in ticine, which needs t<> buy 
over three hundred thousand dollars 
worth of mail bags, which requires 
a shop in mi nil bags which costs al- 
most a hundred thousand dollars a 
\ear for the lahur alone and needs 
over one hundred and thirty thou- 
sand dollars worth of stationery up- 
on which to write letter- aboul car- 



UNLOADING MAIL FROM AN OCEAN 
LINER 



rying letters, and some vague notion 
of the huge extent of this greatest 
of governmental activities may be 
had. 

Note.- — ■Previous years have 
shown a surplus, not a deficit, and 
1916 will show one. The deficit Of 
ahout 12 millions for 1915 is directly 
traceable to the falling off in re- 
ceipts due to business depression 
caused by the war. 

Additional information regarding 
the activities of the service may be 
had from the reports of the Post- 
master General, reports of each of 
his four Assistants, report of the 
Solicitor's office, or the Postal Guide, 
a huge hook of postal information 
sold by the Post Office to those who 
need its information. The officials 

Of the Post Office should he ad- 
dressed Post oilice Department, 
Washington, D. C. 




Coiling Stamps Cutting Stamps 

Printing Postal Cards Printing Money Orders 

Separating the Stamps for Coiling Postal Card Stock 

PRINTING STAMPS, MONEY ORDERS AND POSTAL CARDS 



THE WH ITE HOUSE 

WASHINGTON 

February 11, 1916 

Sir: 

It will be a signal service to our country 
to arouse it to a knowledge of the great possibili- 
ties that are open to it in the markets of the world. 
The door of opportunity swings wide before us. 
Through it we may, if we will, enter into rich fields 
of endeavor and success. In order to do this we mu6t 
show an effectiveness in industrial practice which 
measures up to our best standards. We must avail our- 
selves of all that science can tell us in aid of In- 
dustry and must use all that education can contribute 
to train the artisan in the principles and practice 
of hi6 work. Our Industries must be eelf-reliant and 
courageous because based upon certs in knowledge of 
their task and because supported by the efforts of 
citizens in the mills. If scientific research and 
the educated worker go hand in hand with broad vision 
In finance and with that keen self-criticism which is 
the manufacturer's first duty to himself, the 
fields will be few indeed in which American com- 
merce may not hold, if it chooses, a primary place. 
Youre very truly. 



The Editor, 

The Scientific American, 

New York City. 




A LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 



CHAPTER XIV. 

OUR NATURAL RESOURCES AND HOW THEY 
ARE BEING DEVELOPED 

Bv Hon. FRANKLIN K. LANK, Secretary of the Interior 



PREPAREDNESS is generally 
understood as the state of being 
ready to light if necessary. 
Bnt the finest army and the big- 
gest navy in the world cannot con- 
stitute real preparedness without 
the complete mobilization of the in- 
dustrial resources, which must be 
behind them. Fortunately, such mo- 
bilization means profit and develop- 
ment for the country, in the absence 
of any war or threat of war. 

Industry and natural resources 
are strained in time of war from 
two great causes : it is more diffi- 
cult to get supplies from abroad, 
and the demand for what is at hand 
is supernormal. With an increased 
demand and a possible source" of 
supply cut off, confusion follows un- 
less a nation is industrially prepared 
as to its natural resources to such 
an extent that an abnormal demand 
does not throw machinery into 
disorder. 

The natural resources of the 
United States are the most remark- 
able in the whole world. We have 
made some mistakes in their devel- 
opment, and private interests have 
dominated public interests in some 
cases. But we have seen our mis- 
takes, corrected many of them, and 
are now correcting others. That 
this policy will continue, and that 
nothing will interfere with the de- 
velopment, conservation and proper 
use of our enormous natural wealth, 
should be the first aim of all who 



have real preparedness, either for 
war or peace, at heart. 

Some months since I sought to 
learn what we had with which to 
meet the world which was teaching 
us that war was no longer only be- 
tween armed forces, but an endur- 
ing contest between all the life 
forces of the contesting parties, 
their financial strength, their indus- 
trial organization and adaptability, 
their crop yields, and their mineral 
resources, and that it ultimately 
comes to a test of the very genius 
of the peoples involved. To mo- 
bilize even a great army is now 
no more than an idle evidence of a 
single form of strength if behind 
this army the nation is not organ- 
ized. An army is no longer merely 
so many rifles and men, cartridges 
and horses; but chemists and in- 
ventors, mines and farms, automo- 
biles and roads, airships and gas- 
oline, barbed wire and turning 
lathes, railroads and weather 
prophets ; indeed, the complete ma- 
chinery of an industrial nation's life. 

With the exception of one or two 
minor minerals, the United States 
produces every mineral needed in 
industry. We produce 6G per cent 
of the world's output of petroleum, 
GO per cent of its copper, 40 per cent 
of its coal and iron, and 32 per cent 
cf its lead and zinc. Tin in small 
quantities is produced in Alaska and 
platinum in Oregon, Nevada and 
California, manganese in Virginia, 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



171 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Georgia, Arkansas and California; 
but of these latter minerals, as of 

nickel and some others of less im- 
portance, our supply is altogether 
inadequate for our consumption. We 
can build a battleship, or an auto- 
mobile (excepting the tires), a rail- 
road or a factory, entirely from the 
products of American mines and for- 
ests. To replenish the soil we have 
phosphorus in abundance, potash is 
known to exist in the deposits of 
Searles Lake. California, which, 
however, is not yet commercially 
available, and in alunite, where it is 
combined with aluminium and de- 
posits of which are found in several 
states: and nitrogen can be extract- 
ed from the air by cheap hydro- 
electric power as is now done in 
Germany, .Norway and elsewhere. 
So that we can feed the earth and 
keep it sustained. Our soil and cli- 
mate are so varied that we can 
produce all the grains, fruits, vege- 
tables and fibers known to the tem- 
perate zone, and some found in the 
semi-tropics. And to crown all 
these, we have water power that 
can he made to generate perhaps as 
much as 60,000,000 horse-power. 

Our resources are not alone phy- 
sical. Our ingenuity and ability to 
design the machine to meet the need 
have been proven a thousand times. 
never more convincingly than in a 
compilation of the most necessary 
inventions and discoveries which the 
world uses. 

During the past fifty years the 
people of the United states have 
uttered two thirds of the revolu- 
tionary, epoch-making inventions of 
the world, from the telephone and 
the incandescent lamp to Wright's 
aeroplane ami bigh-speed tool steel. 
Bach day we issue .-in average of 
two hundred letters patent to Amer- 
ican Inventors, and the number of 
inventions is increasing with the 
years. 

How great a resource this char 

acteristic might be in time of n I 

has been amply demonstrated dur- 
ing the present war ill Europe, which 
has denied us imports formerly con- 



sidered essential. Benzol and toluol, 
foundation of aniline dyes and ex- 
plosives, have heeii produced from 
crude petroleum by a new process 
discovered by Walter F. Rittman, 
of the Bureau of Mines. That an 
increase in the amount of gasoline 
which is yielded by crude petroleum 
is also possible by the Rittman pro- 
cess is by no means the least of its 
advantages. 

Barium salts, needed for a va- 
riety of purposes, were formerly 
imported in large quantities, al- 
though the raw material, barytes. 
occurs in extensive deposits in this 
country. We now manufacture these 
salts in California, Colorado, Illi- 
nois. Pennsylvania, New York. Ten- 
nessee and West Virginia, the new 
industry not only meeting the do- 
mestic demand, but also furnishing 
large quantities of barium com- 
pounds for export, and we are sub- 
stituting domestic barytes for the 
foreign material for all purposes. 
The substitution of sodium cyanide 
for potassium cyanide in the treat- 
ment of gold ores to the extent of 
more than half a million pounds in 
Colorado alone illustrates how the 
potash shortage is being met 
throughout the mining states. Tung- 
sten, an absolutely essential consti- 
tuent in high-speed tool steel, is 
being mined at more points than 
ever before to meet the special de- 
mand in the steelworking industry; 
a tin smelter has been erected to 
reduce Bolivian ores; cobalt, which 
is a recent and valuable acquisition 
to the family of steel-alloying met- 
als, is now being produced in quan- 
tity sufficient to lower the market 
price: American antimony is quoted 
in the metal market for the first 
time, and from Alaska alone more 
antimony has been shipped this year 
than was ever produced from Amer- 
ican mines in any one year; cad- 
mium, formerly imported, is now an 
article of export : and in other minor 
details full independence of foreign 
supplies is being worked out. Prac- 
tically all the crude platinum from 
Colombia and pari of the New Zea- 



OUB NATIONAL RESOURCES 



IT. - , 



land output is coming to the United 
states for refining. 

There is probably no one thing 
we can do more vital to real pre- 
paredness than a comprehensive 
conservation and development of 
our petroleum resources. In spite 
of the alarmists, statistics show no 
immediate prospect of a coal short- 
age; the total coal produced in the 
United States is a minute quantity 
compared to the supply in sight. 

But of petroleum we have no such 
comforting statistics. How much of 
it there is in the United States no 
one knows. The Geological Survey 
has made a maximum estimate of 
twenty-three billion barrels, which 
sounds like an inexhaustible supply. 
But at the rate that it is now being 
consumed in this country alone 
(265,000,000 barrels a year) this 
does not mean an indefinite supply, 
and from the rapid exhaustion of 
some fields it is manifest that there 
can he no real approximation of the 
oil in our lands. Whatever the sup- 
ply, it should not be allowed in its 
crude state to compete with coal as 
fuel. Petroleum is a priceless re- 
source, for it can never be replaced. 
Trees can lie grown again on the 
soil from which they have been 
taken. But how can petroleum be 
produced? It has taken the ages 
for nature to distill it in her sub- 
terranean laboratory. We do not 
even know her process. We may 
find a substitute for it, but have 
not yet. It is practically the one 
lubricant of the world to-day. Not 
a railroad wheel turns without its 
way being smoothed by it. We can 
make light and heat by hydro-elec- 
tric power, bui the great turbines 
move on bearings that are smoth- 
ered in petroleum. From it we get 
the quick exploding gas which is to 
the motor and the airship what air 
is to the human body. To industry, 
agriculture, commerce and the 
1 Measures of life, petroleum is now 
essential. 

Among our natural resources 
which should he developed as speed- 
ily as possible to their full capacity 



as a measure of preparedness for a 
successful peace or the prosecution 
of any war into which the future 
may draw us, are our wonderful 
water powers. Among the strange 
things done by Benjamin Franklin 
was to give an added and peculiar 
value to the ledges of granite which 
confine our Western streams and 
turn them into dam sites, useful 
for purposes of power generation. 
How many of these are on public 
land not yet disposed of no one 
knows, but we have several hun- 
dred under w i t h d r a w a 1 which 
should be freed from withdrawal 
and turned into use just as quickly 
as possible; for. as the muscle of 
man or horse can raise a few bar- 
rels of water from the well to sup- 
ply stock or irrigate the garden 
patch, so can the power of the 
stream, turned into electricity, be 
used to raise millions of barrels of 
water to irrigate alfalfa farms or 
orchards. And this is now one of 
the most common uses of electric 
power in the West, and, in fact, 
some of the Eastern States, where 
irrigation is found of value. Then, 
too, there is that mystifying miracle 
of drawing nitrogen from the air 
for chemical use, which can be done 
only with great power, hut is being 
done in Germany. Norway. Sweden, 
France, Switzerland, and elsewhere, 
by which an inexhaustible substi- 
tute for the almost exhausted 
nitrates of Chile has been found. 
This is already a great industry in 
Europe, and will of necessity be- 
come greater in the United States 
than elsewhere, because of our size 
and need and opportunity. To in- 
crease the yield of our farms and 
to give us an independent and ade- 
quate supply of nitrogen for the ex- 
plosives used in war. we must set 
water wheels at work. 

Two resources of little or no value 
alone, but t o g e t h e r constituting 
wealth, we have in abundance. Land 
without water is not available for 
agriculture; water, master and not 
servant, destroys property, indus- 
try, wealth and lives. 



176 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



.Many rivers, greal potentially as 
sources of irrigation, in periodica] 
overflows and Soods <!<i incalculable 
damage. When we have conquered 
our rivers and made them servo by 
spreading <>ut at our will, not theirs, 
over the land we wish to make blos- 
som under the beneficent influence 
of irrigation, we will have added to 
our national preparedness a factor 
the value of which cannot be 
computed. 

N te can take the yearly toll 

of lives lost and property destroyed 
by the furious and unrestrained 
sweep of our rivers without realiz- 
ing that the people of this country 
cannot regard themselves as owning 
this land, really possessing it. until 
they have brought these waters un- 
der subjection. And in doing this 
they will literally create new land 
by the millions of acres, land that 
will support millions of people as 
against the thousands which live 
upon it to-day. 

How these great works can be 
carried on calls for constructive 
thought, not merely on the engi- 
neering side, but more immediately 
upon the financial side as to those 
ways and means by which the lands 
reclaimed shall be made to bear in 
some degree the burden of the ex- 
pense. As to the funds which will 
be needed, they mount into such 
figures as to be staggering. And I 

can see no hope that this work will 
be adequately undertaken without 
the Government advancing its credit 
and investing directly some of its 
own funds. We are conducting this 
Government from day to day out of 
current revenues. Only the richest 
of people could pursue such a pol- 
icy. No private enterprise attempts 
it. No railroad system has been 
built that way. Bui few of the 
States now construct their highway 
systems out of the year's revenues. 



The permanent improvements which 
the whole people undertake are a 
legitimate charge against capital ac- 
count, not against maintenance. A 
commission to devise the ways and 
means by which the States and pri- 
vate land owners and the National 
Government can co-operate in pay- 
ing for the work done seems to me 
a more needed body than one which 
will report upon engineering 
methods. 

There are other sides to the ques- 
tion upon which I have not touched: 
the conservation and development of 
our twenty-two millions of children, 
the men and women of to-morrow; 
the proper use of our forest reserves 
and the wise enactment and admin- 
istration of laws regarding timber 
as well as minerals: the commercial 
development of the incredibly rich 
territory of Alaska, without its ex- 
ploitation for the benefil of the few; 
the broad visioned development of 
inland waterways and rivers for 
commerce; the problem of good 
roads, which the automobile, and 
especially the automobile truck, is 
gradually working out 

But enough has been said to indi- 
cate that no country in the world 
has better material with which to 
work. I believe that conservation. 
in its broadest term, means not the 
mere saving of a resource against 
the possible future need, hut making 
the conserved resource as widely 
useful to the greatest possible num- 
ber in the shortest possible time 
consistent with the elimination of 
waste. It is along this highway 
that this nation must move, in my 
judgment, if it is to be economically, 
commercially, humanely prepared 
for any future, whether of peace or 
war. which is to he commensurate 
with the opportunities nature has 
given us. and worthy the American 
character. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE MINERAL INDUSTRY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 



Compiled from Reports of the U. S. Geological Survey 
By A. H. FAY, Mining Engineer 



THE magnitude of the mineral 
industry may be illustrated by 
taking into consideration the 
number of men employed, as follows : 
There are about 2,500 metal mine 
operators, employing 175,000 men at 
the mines and 50,000 men at the 
metallurgical plants ; 6,000 coal 
mines, employing 734,000 men at the 
mines and 31,000 at coke ovens. 
There are 350.000 men employed in 
the production of pig iron and steel, 
100.000 men employed at 3,000 quar- 
ries, 76,000 men employed at brick 
and tile works, 60,000 in the pottery 
and clay industry, 69,000 in glass 
works and 15,000 in the petroleum 
industry. 

Barring the production in 1913, 
the total amount of minerals pro- 
duced in the United States in 1915 
was larger than in any previous 
year, being approximately $2,373,- 
000.000. or a gain of 12 per cent 
over 1914. Of the total amount pro- 
duced, the metallic products repre- 
sented $987,500,000 in 1915 and $691.- 
000,000 in 1914. an increase of 43 
per cent. There was a slight de- 
crease in the total non-metallic 
products in 1915, as compared with 
1914, the figures being $1,423,000.* 100 
in 1914 and $1,385,000,000 in 1915. 

CONTENTS 

The mineral industry of the United 

States 

Precious metals 

Gold, silver, platinum 



Rase metals 

Iron and iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, 
aluminium and chromic iron ore 
Miscellaneous metallic products 

Antimony, bismuth, manganese, nickel, 
quicksilver, radium, scrap metals, 
tin, titanium, tungsten, uranium and 
vanadium 
Fuels 

Coal, petroleum, natural gas 
Non-metallic products 

Barytes, cement, clay and clay prod- 
ucts, fluorspar, gypsum, phosphate 
rock, potash ; salt, bromine and cal- 
cium chloride ; sulphur and sul- 
phuric acid 
Miscellaneous non-metallic products 
Arsenic, asbestos, asphalt, borax, feld- 
spar, fuller's earth, garnet, gems 
and precious stones, graphite, lime, 
magnesite, mica, mineral paints, 
sand and gravel, slate, talc and 
soapstone. 
Quarry industry 
Mine accidents 

PRECIOUS METAJLS 

Gold 

The world's production of gold In 
1914 was $400,000,000, of which the 
United States produced $94,531,800. The 
United States production in 1915 was 
about $99,000,000. Gold is produced in 
twenty States, California, Colorado, 
Alaska, Nevada and South Dakota being 
the largest producers. The placer mines 
produce about 25 per cent and the dry 
or silicious ores 66 per cent. The re- 
maining 9 per cent is from copper, load 
and zinc ores. The recent high prices 
of copper, lead and zinc have stimulated 
mining, and as a result there is an 
increased gold production from this 
source. 

The gold dredging industry is being 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



ITS 



OUR ntl'NTHV AND ITS RESOURCES 



rapidly extended to large areas of low 
grade sands and gravels in Alaska, Cali- 
fornia, .Montana, Colorado, Idaho, Ore 
gem and Nevada. In 1904 the amount 
of gold produced by dredges was $2,000,- 
000, while in 1014 it was more than 
$12,500,000. Improved metallurgical 
processes have resulted in obtaining a 
recovery of more than 90 per cent of 
the gold in the ore and made possible 
the profitable mining of silicious ores 
containing less than $3 per ton. The 
average amount of gold recovered per 
ton of ore from the deep mines of Alaska 
in 1914 was $2.7S ; from California, 
$5.46, and from South Dakota, $3.63. 
Any invention that decreases the cost 
of production increases the amount of 
ore from which gold may be recovered. 
It has the same effect as discovering 
new deposits. It is not possible to give 
an accurate estimate of the present sup- 
ply of gold ores. There is ample, how- 
ever, for many decades. One mine in 
Alaska produces 6,000 tons of ore per 
day and has more than 75,000,000 tons 
of ore reserve's. This example is given 
to show the magnitude of the operations 
that are being planned and carried into 
actual practice. 

The exports of gold during the calen- 
dar year 1914 were $222,616,156, while 
the imports were $57,387,741. 

Silver 
The silver production of the world for 
1914 was 225,000,000 ounces, of which 
the United States produced one third, or 
72,444,800 ounces, valued at $40,000. 
000. The production of silver in 1915 
was about 7 per cent less than in 1914. 
Three fourths of the world's silver pro- 
duction is derived from North America, 
1 1 per cent from Europe and the remain- 
der from Australia and Asia. The 
United states contains vast quantities 
of low grade complex ore-- containing 
liver, copper, lead and zinc that are 

now unworked l ause of the lack of 

processes by which the metals can be 
recovered at a profit. Investigations by 
Federal bureaus are in progress to deter 
mine the extent of these ores and the 
possibility of developing processes for 
treating them profitably, thus making 
available large supplies of silver ore. 
There Is every reason to believe that 



North America will continue to retain 
its position as the largest producer of 
silver. 

There are twenty-five States that pro- 
duce silver, of which Nevada ranks first 
with 15,877,200 ounces in 1914: Idaho, 
12,573,800 ounces; Montana. 12,536,700 
ounces: Utah, 11.722,000 ounces; Colo- 
rado, 8,804,400 ounces, and Arizona, 
4,4.".9.500 ounces. Other States produced 
the remainder. 

The exports of silver, principally to 
Europe, China and India, in 1914 were 
51,603,000 ounces, while the imports 
were 25,959. 1S7 ounces. 

I 'hi I'm inn 

The principal production of platinum 
in the United States is from California 
and Oregon. The total amount produced 
in 1915 from these two States was 
741.91 troy ounces, valued at $23,538. 
This is an increase of 171.91 ounces over 
the production of 1914. There was also 
produced by various platinum refineries 
S,606 ounces of metals from the platinum 
group, of which 1,587 troy ounces Is 
probably of domestic origin. 

The principal source of platinum is 
Russia, which produced in 1914 241,200 
ounces out of the world's production of 
260,548 ounces. The production reported 
for Russia in 1915 was 124,000 ounces, 
while the world's production is esti- 
mated at 143,898 ounces. The imports 
for 1915 were about 10 per cent lower 
than in 1914 and amounted to 69,000 
ounces, valued at $2,768,688. 

The United state. Geological Survey 

and the Federal Bureau of Mines are co- 
operating in a general study of placer 
i'eposits in the United states with the 
view of devising methods whereby plat- 
inum may be recovered from the black 
sands, which contain appreciable ipiau 
tities of this valuable metal. Some of 
tin 1 gold ami copper ores contain plat- 
inum in such minute quantities that it 
is rarely detected in ordinary assaying. 
The bullion obtained from these ores 
contains sufficient platinum to make its 
recovery an Important by product at 

gold ami copper refineries. Until impor- 
tant sources of supply are discovered in 
tiie United states this country must de- 
pend upon Russia for its needs. 



THE MINERAL INIU'STKY 



IT'.* 




WORLD'S GOLD PRODUCTION 




WORLDS SILVER PRODUCTION 



ISO 



01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



BASE METALS 

Iron Ore and Iron 

The production of iron ore in the 
United States in 1915 was 55,526,490 
gross tons, or aliout 14,000,000 tons 
greater than in 1914, and valued at 
$1.85 per tun. With the exception of 
the years 1910 and 1913 this is the 
largest production. Of the total amount 
produced, the Lake Superior region, in- 
cluding Michigan, Wisconsin and Minne- 
sota, produced 85 per cent, and the 
Birmingham district, Alabama, 8.5 per 
cent. 

Comparatively little iron ore is im- 
ported into the United states (1,350,500 
tons in 1914), the total being about 2 
per cent of the quantity mined each 
year. The imports come mostly from 
Cuba, Sweden, Canada, Newfoundland, 
Spain and Chile. The exports of iron 
ore from the United States (551, CIS 
tons in 1914) nearly offset the imports, 
so that the United States is self-sus- 
taining as far as its production of iron 
is concerned. In the production of iron 
ore the United States ranks first, Ger- 
many second, France third, Great Britain 
fourth and Spain fifth. 

The iron ore supply of the United 
States of commercial grade as mined 
at present is 7,500,000,000 tons, one 
third of which is in the Lake Superior 
district. While this amount seems enor- 
mous, yet at the present rate of pro- 
duction it is not difficult to foresee the 
time when this quantity will be ex- 
hausted. There are, however, important 
factors which bear upon the prolonga- 
tion of the ore reserves. Among these 
are the development of metallurgical 
processes whereby lower grade ores may 
be utilized; Improved mining methods, 
which will reduce waste; the discovery 
of new ore deposits; tlie importation of 
iron ore from Latin America and the 
utilization of titaniferous iron ores. 

The production of pig iron. Including 
its various alloys, in 1915 was 29,916,- 
213 gross tons, as compared with 23,- 
.':.':l'.'j i l gross tons in 1914. Tin' average 
value at tlie furnace, in 1915, was $13.21 
per ton. 

In the production of pig iron the 
United States ranks first, followed in 



order by Germany, Great Britain, France 
and Russia. The world's production in 
1913 was 78,026,869 long tons, while 
in 1914 it was approximately 04,000,000 
tons. 

The imports of pig iron (138,903 tons 
in 1914) and the exports (114,423 tons 
in 1914) almost balance each other. 

Copper 

The production of copper in 1915 was 
1,388,009,527 pounds as compared with 
1,150,137,192 pounds in 1914, or an in- 
crease of 21 per cent. The increase 
since 1880 has been 25-fold. Arizona, 
the largest producer of copper, leads 
with 432,467,690 pounds, followed next 
in order in 1915 by Montana, Michigan, 
Utah, Alaska, Nevada, New Mexico and 
California. The output in 1915 repre- 
sents about 60 per cent of the world's 
production. Europe produces 13 per 
tent, Canada and Mexico 8 per cent, 
South America and Cuba 7 per cent, and 
all other countries 12 per cent. 

The average price of copper for the 
year 1915 was 17.5 cents per pound, as 
compared with 13.3 cents in 1914. At 
the beginning of the year the price was 
relatively low, but started to advance 
until a maximum of 20 cents a pound 
was reached during the middle of the 
year. 

The apparent consumption of copper 
in the United States in 1915 was 1,043,- 
461, 9S2 pounds, as compared with 620,- 
445,373 pounds in 1914. The exports of 
copper bars, pigs, ingots, plates and 
sheets during 1915 amounted to 681,- 
953,301 pounds, as compared with 840,- 
OS0.922 pounds for 1914. 

The advent of the steam shovel and 
the introduction of improved mining 
methods and metallurgical processes 
have so lowered the cost of production 
that ores yielding only 1.60 per cent 
copper are now worked at a profit. Such 
ore even ten years ago would have been 
considered as waste material. Leaching 
processes have been installed by a num- 
ber of companies and the results ob- 
tained Indicate that even lower grade 
ores may be worked. These improved 
processes are a tremendous factor in 
extending the life of the available sup- 
plies of copper ores. 



182 



OUR COUNTS? AND ITS i;i:s< »ri;< -i:s 



I. rail 

The production of refined lead in 1915 
was 550,055 short tons, as compared 
with 542,122 tons in 1I»14. The value 
(.1" the lead production in 1915 was $51,- 
705,000, as compared with j?4ii. 286,000 
in 1914. The Increase in the production 
amounted to 1.3 per cent, while the 
value of the lead produced increased 
22. 3 per cent. Missouri leads in the 
production of lead with 195,034 tons, 
f..I]..w. m1 by Idaho with 160,680 tons. 
The next in order of production is Utah 
with 106,105 tons, followed by Colorado 
with 32. .",52 tons. The other States pro- 
duced small amounts varying from a 
few tons to 4,000 or 5,000 tons. The 
imports of lead for 1915 amounted to 
51,496 tons, as compared with 28,338 
tons in 1914. The price of lead at the 
beginning of 1915 was 3.08 cents per 
pound, while at the close of the year 
it. was 5.40 cents. The average New 
York price was 4.7 cents per pound, as 
compared with 3.9 cents in 1914. 

Under ordinary commercial condi- 
tions, about 40 per cent of the lead is 
used in the manufacture of white lead, 
15 per cent for pipes, 7 per cent for 
sheets, 10 per cent for shot and the 
remainder for exports and other 
purposes. 

The normal exports of lead about 
equal the lead produced from foreign 

ores. However, the exports of dome-tic 
lead in 1914 were 5s, 722 short tons and 
sT,n9L' tons in 1915, while no domestic 
lead was exported in 1913. 

Lead ores are mined in twenty two 
States and the deposits are sufficiently 

large thai the United states occupies 
tlie enviable position of having enough 
had to meet all demands. 

Zinc 
The world's production of zinc is 

slightly over 1,000,000 tons per year, of 
which in 1915 the United state- pro 
duced 489,519 short tons, as compared 
with 353,049 tons in 1911. representing 
an increase in domestic production of ::'.i 
per cut. The value of the spelter pro 

duel during 1915 was $121,401, I, as 

i ompared with $36,01 1,000 in 1914, rep 
resenting an increase of - j:;7 per cent. 
'lie exports of domestic spelter for 1915 
amounted to ll7,79t; ton-, as compared 



with 04.S07 tons in 1914 and 7,7*3 tons 
in L913. Illinois, Kansas and Oklahoma 
are the principal States in which zinc 
smelting is carried on. the amount 
smelted in each State in 1915 being as 
follows: Illinois, 159,958 tons; Kansas, 
100,983 tons; Oklahoma, 109,208 tons; 
with 118,930 tons apportioned among 
the other states not enumerated. Many 
of the smelter plants were increased in 
size during the year, while a number of 
new smelters were constructed. The 
number of retorts in operation at the 
heginning of 1915 was 113,914. while at 
the end of the year they had heen in- 
creased to 154,898. 

The price of spelter in January, 1915, 
at St. Louis was 5.5 cents per pound, 
while in June. 1915, it had reached the 
phenomenal price of 26.5 cents per 
pound. The average price for prime 
Western spelter at St. Louis was 14.2 
cents per pound. 

Ores of zinc are widely distributed in 
commercial quantities in nineteen States. 
Missouri is the largest producer, lead- 
ing with about 4n per cent. Montana is 
second, while large shipments originate 
in Colorado. Wisconsin, New Jersey and 
Tennessee. The supplies of ore are ample 
for all domestic needs. 

There arc large losses in the present 
mining and metallurgical method- ; in 
fact, in most cases not over 50 per cut 
of the zinc in the ore is marketed a- 
spelter, the remainder l.eing lost in the 
various st.iues from mine t.. smelter. 

A large percentage of tic zinc is used 
for galvanizing iron and in the manu- 
facture of brass. About 20,000 tons of 
zinc oxide is used each year as tiller for 
automobile tires, while 40,000 tons find 
a market in the paint industry. 

Aluminium 

The production of bauxite, thi 
material from which aluminium is made. 
was 297,041 long tons in 1915, valued 
.it $1,514,834, an increase of 35 per 
cent in quantity and 11 per cent in value 
compared with 1914. Arkansas pr.. 
dllced about 90 per cent of the doine-ti • 

bauxite, while Georgia, Alabama and 
Tennessee contributed the remainder. 

The consumption of aluminium in the 
United states In 1915 amounted to 99,- 
806,000 pounds. The demand exceeded 



THE MINERAL iniu'stry 



183 




WORLDS PRODUCTION OF IRON 




WORLD'S COAL PRODUCTION 



184 



OCR cnrXTKV AXI> ITS RESOURCES 



the supply, which, together with the 
curtailment of imports, caused the price 

to he much higher than in former years. 
About sixty years ago aluminium was 
considered a chemical curiosity, valued 
at $90 per pound. The total amount 
produced in 1883 was 83 pounds. In 
1889 the total production in the United 
States was 75 pounds per day. valued 
at $4.50 per pound. In 1914 aluminium 
was available in large quantities at 19 
to 22 cents a pound, but with the in- 
creased demand due to unsettled con- 
ditions in 1915 the price rose from 19 
cents in January to 57.75 cents per 
pound in November. 

The increase in the consumption of 
metallic aluminium has largely beep due 
to its lightness. The specific gravity oi 
aluminium is 2.7, whereas brass is 3 
times as great, steel 2.8 times and cop- 
per 3.3 times. Aluminium also resists 
the action of acids and is an important 
metal in the manufacture of high ex- 
plosives, sulphuric and nitric acids. 

Aluminium las no substitute, but it 
is available as a substitute for copper 
:i~ :i conductor "t" electricity. The manu- 
facture of aluminium is an expensive 
process, inasmuch as it requires large 
electrical installations. An abundance 
of cheap water power is one of the pre- 
requisites for the successful production 
of this valuable metal. The deposits of 
bauxite are far from being exhausted, 
while all clays contain from 10 to 40 per 
cent of aluminium oxide, which may be 
recovered by methods yet to be dis- 
covered. 

('Jtrottiic Iron Ore 
The production of chromic iron ore in 
t!ie United States in 1915 amounted to 
3,281 long tons, valued at $36,744, as 
compared with 591 long tons, valued at 
$8,715, in 11U4. The lomestic demand 
for chromic iron ore Increased largely 
as a result of conditions abroad, whereby 
it was impossible to imporl this class of 
on'. California is the largest producer, 
while a small amount has been mined 
near Grant's Pass, Ore. 

The average production of chromic 
iron ore from 1901 to 1913, Inclusive, 
was only 250 tons, while the imports 
during the same period averaged 39,000 
tons per year, mainly from Rhodesia 



and Turkey. The principal foreign <1e 
posits are in Rhodesia. New Caledonia, 
Russia and Turkey. 

Chromium finds its principal use in 
the manufacture of high grade tool steel. 
Tool steel containing small amounts of 
tungsten and chromium surpasses any 
other known alloy as an efficient agent 
in machine shop practice. 

Miscellaneous Metallic Products 

Antimony. — The production of anti- 
mony ores in the Tinted States in 1915 
was 5,000 tons, containing 2.000 tons 
of antimony, valued at $325,000. The 
price of antimony in 1915 was the high- 
est known since the metal became a 
regular article of commerce. The aver- 
age monthly price for 19l4 was between 
5.44 cents and 7.11 cents per pound. 
The price of antimony rose rapidly in 
1915 until it reached 40 cent-, per pound. 

Bismuth. — Bismuth is saved as a by- 
product in the electrolytic refining of 
lead. The production in 1914 was 220,- 
000 pounds, valued at $420,000. The 
imports for 1914 were valued at $165,- 
208. The price of bismuth in 1915 
varied from $2.75 to $4 per pound. 

Manganese. — Only a small amount of 
manganese ore was mined in 1914 in 
the United States, 2,635 long tons, val- 
ued at $27, .".77. The average price at 
the mine was $10.37 per ton. The im- 
ports of manganese ore amounted to 
2S3.294 tons, valued at $2.(^4.120. In 
addition to the manganese ore there was 
mined iron ore containing manganese to 
the amount of 98.205 long tons, valued 
at $2ls.l:i7 

Nickel. — The amount of metallic nickel 
and nickel salts recovered from smelting 
plants in the United States in 1914 was 
845,334 pounds, valued at $313,000. 
Practically all of this was saves! as a 
by-product in the electric refining of 
copper. The imports of nickel amounted 
to $5,028,818 in 1914. strictly speak- 
ing, nickeliferous ores are not mined in 

the United States. 

Quicksilver. — The production of quick- 
silver in 1915 was 20,681 ila-ks. a- com- 
pared with 1C.54S tla-^ks in 1914. The 
larger part of this production is from 
California and Texas. The normal price 
of quicksilver in 191 1 was $38 per flask. 
The average price for 1915 was $8*i per 
flask. 

Radium. — The production of radium in 
1915 was 6 grammes, as compared with 
22.3 grammes in 1014. The United 
state- has the largest known radium 
deposits in the world, but the principal 
market for radium is in Europe and on 
account of tlie war the demand ceased 
and hence the production was curtailed. 
Radium occurs in minute quantities in 
pitchblende and carnotite. Radium as 
metal has been isolated bul lew time-. 
It is ordinarily recovered a- a hydrous 
sulphate, chloride or bromide. Its prin 




Photographs from D. S. Geological Survey 

Some California Wells Hafney's Gas Well in Winter 

Some Beaumont, Texas, Wells Oil Derricks, Beaumont, Texas 

OIL WELLS OF THE WEST 



186 



nrit COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES 



cipal use is in medicine as a remedy for 
cancer. 

Scrap Metals. — The amount of second- 
ary metals recovered from scrap, sweep- 
ings, etc. in 1915. was $114,304,930. 

Tin. — Only a small amount of tin ore 
(155 short tons in 1914i is produced in 
the United States. The majority of this 
production is from Alaska and contains 
about 60 per cent metallic tin. 

Titanium. — The production of titanium 
ore i rutile and ilmenite) in the United 
States for 1915 was 250 tons, valued at 
$25,000 and $30,000. Rutile and ilmenite 
are used in the manufacture of ferro- 
t itanium, employed in making steel and 
cast iron. 

Tungsten. — The production of tung- 
sten iii the United States in 1915 was 
the largest on record, being about 2,165 
short tons, containing 60 per cent of 
tungsten trioxide, valued at slightly more 
than $2,000,000. The production (lur- 
ing the first six months of 1916 was in 
excess of 3,000 tons. The price of tung- 
sten ore the latter part of 1914 was $9 
per unit. In the fall of 1915 the price 
had advanced to $48 per unit. The price 
of metallic tungsten rose from ,$1 a 
pound early in the year to $8 a pound 
in December. The principal sources of 
production are California. Colorado and 
Arizona. Its principal use is in the 
manufacture of tungsten high speed tool 
steels. 

Uranium and Vanadium. — The carno- 
tite ores produced -•"•.4 tons of uranium 
oxide and 035 tons of vanadium oxide 
in 1915, as compared with 87.2 tons of 
uranium in 1914 and 435 tons of vana- 
dium in 1914. 

FUELS 

Coal 

The production of coal in the United 
States in 1915 amounted to 531,619,487 
short tons, an increase of 3.5 per cent 
over the amount produced in 1914. Of 
the total production 442,624,426 short 
tons, valued at $502,037,688, was bitu- 
minous coal and lignite, and 88,995,061 
short tons, valued at $184,653,498, was 
Pennsylvania anthracite. Pennsylvania 
ranks lirst as a coal producing State, 
followed by West Virginia, Illinois, Ohio 
and Kentucky. 

The total number of men employed In 
the coal mining industry in 1915 was 
734,008, employed on an average 209 

days. 

The United states ranks first in the 
world's production of coal, followed by 
Qreal Britain ranking second, with Ger 

many third. Much of the mining in the 

last fifty years has I n carelessly done 

and enormous quantities of coal have 



been left in the ground and in such 
condition that it is doubtful whether 
it may ever be recovered. During each 
year for every 500,000.000 tons produced 
there is wasted or left underground at 
hast 250,000,000 tons, thus representing 
an average recovery of only 66 per cent. 
Under the best current practice with im- 
proved mining methods many of the 
mines are now recovering 85 to 90 per 
cent. Of the total amount of energy 
in coal not over 11 per cent is effectively 
utilized. 

The available coal supplies of the 
United States are estimated as 4,231,- 
352,000,000 short tons, and represent 
about 51 per cent of the known deposits 
of the world. Estimates have lieen made, 
varying from 100 to 4,000 years, as to 
when our coal supplies will become ex- 
hausted, but it is safe to say that im- 
proved mining methods and more efficient 
utilization of the heat units in the coal 
will do much toward extending the 
period of depletion until some other 
source of heat and energy will be found. 

Coke. — About two thirds of our coke 
is made by the bee hive process, which 
wastes enormous quantities of gas. tar, 
ammonia, benzol and other products. 
The installation of by-product ovens has 
increased rapidly and is turning into 
profits and dividends large quantities 
of the by-products wasted in the bee hive 
process. The recovery of the coal by- 
products places at the disposal of chem- 
ists and manufacturers a quantity of 
material from which dyes and explosives 
may he manufactured. 

The production of coke in the United 
States in 1915 was 41,581,150 short 

tons, an increase of 7,025,236 tons (20 
per cent i as compared with 1914. The 

number of I hive ovens in operation 

in 1915 wa-. ts.Tr.r, and the number of 
by-product ovens was 6,346. There were 
a large number of by-product ovens 
brought into use and all ovens were 
operated nearer full capacity (303 days) 
than in the previous year 1 2S6 days). 
The number of men employed at coke 
ovens in 1915 was 31,060. 

Coke Oven By-products. — The value of 

coke oven by-products was $29,824,579 
in 1915, as compared with $17,500,000 
in L914. The increase in benzol products 



IRS 



oil! curXTRV AND ITS RESOURCES 



was the most Interesting feature of tin 1 
year in the coke industry. The valae 
of this product rose from less than 
$1,000,000 in 1914 to more than $7,760,- 
000 in 1915. In 1914 there were four- 
teen henzol plants, controlled by one 
company. In 1915 sixteen additional 
coke plants were equipped with benzol 
apparatus. The benzol products, includ- 
ing toluol, in 1915 amounted to 16,600, 
657 gallons. The amount of toluol pro- 
duced in 1915 was 623,506 gallons, val- 
ued at $2.45 per gallon. The amount 
of tar obtained from coke ovens in 1915 
we.b 138,414,601 gallons, valued at 
$3,568,384. The total value of annuo 
oia obtained and sold was .$9,867,475. 

Petroleum 

The total quantity of crude petroleum 
placed on the world's market in 1915 
amounted to 426,892,673 barrels, or 7 
per cent more than in 1914. making the 
production in 1915 the greatest on rec- 
ord. Of the total amount produced, the 
United States leads with 281,104,104 
barrels, or 65.85 per cent of the world's 
production. Russia follows with in. or, 
per cent, with Mexico third with 7.71 
per cent. 

Petroleum was first produced in this 
country commercially in 1S59. The im- 
ports of petroleum and petroleum prod- 
for consumption in the United 
states were practically negligible until 
1911. The total value of crude petrol- 
eum products and ozokerite imported 
for consumption in the United state- 
in 1914 was $12,300,000, Of which 
17,200,000 barrels was crude petroleum 
from Mexico, valued at $11,500,000, or 
93 per cent of till imported petroleum 
product-:. The total exports of crude 
petroleum and liquid products of petrol 
cum amounted in 1914 to 53,334,134 
barrels, value, l at .S14t>.ono,000. 

The growth of the petroleum Industry 
in the United states has been rapid and 
has resulted in the Invention of now 
processes and devices whereby it 1ms 

i n possible to increase the quantity 

and reduce the price of many of the 
petroleum bj products. The Bureau of 

Mines has 1 n instrumental in the de 

velopmenl of processes whereby the pro- 
duction of gasoline from crude oil may 



lie almost doubled, and the same bureau 
is also devising methods for the preven- 
tion of waste in drilling for petroleum 
and its storage in tanks. 

At the present rate of consumption of 
250,000,000 barrels per year, the now 
available supplies will be practically ex- 
hausted within a quarter of a century. 
However, the increasing prii f petrol- 
eum, more efficient utilization and the 
prevention of such large waste as is 
dow noticeable will tend to prolong the 
life of the fields many years beyond the 
above estimate. Oil shale deposits in 
Colorado and Utah furnish 10 to 00 gal 
Ions per ton of rock and may become an 
important source of petroleum as the 
present supplies become depleted. 

Natural Gas 

The production of natural gas in 1914 
was .about 592,000,000,000 cubic feet, 

valued at more than $94,000,000. In 

1885 the value of natural gas utilized 
in the United states was $4,857,000. 
Of all of the fuels produced in the 
United states probably the greatest 
waste and loss is in natural gas. As a 
fuel it is easy to handle: is clean, and 
where available is re), lacing all other 
fuels. The waste in its use, however. 
has been excessive, while the waste in 
its production is even still greater. It 
is estimated that in one State alone 
more than 250,000,000 cubic feet of gas 
is wasted daily, while in another field 
at least 400.0011.(10(1 cubic feet of gas is 
turned into the atmosphere each day. 
investigations by the U. S. ecological 
Survey and the Bureau of Mines are 
being conducted for the conservation of 
this valuable fuel both in its production 
and in its method of use. 

NON-METAIXIC PBOD1 I I 9 

BaryU s 

The production ,,f barytes in the 
United States in 1915 was 108,547 short 
tons, valued at $381,032, as compared 
with 1914, when the production was 
52.747 short tons, valued at SI .■,."..(',47. 
The increased production in 1915 was 
largely dm' to imports from Germany 
being cut olT. The principal States pro- 
ducing barytes follow in order of pro 
duction: Missouri, Georgia, Tennessee 



1!MI 



on; <n| xi'Kv AND ITS RESOURCES 



and Kentucky. The deposits in these 
States are sufficient for domestic needs. 
The mineral, however, is not as pure 
as the imported product, so that the best 
utilization •<( these deposits will result 
from improved methods of bleaching and 
purifying the raw material. 

Cement 
In 1880 there were produced in the 
United States 85,000 barrels of Portia nd 
cement, while in 1015 the production 
was 86,891,681 barrels, valued at $74,- 
756,674. The average price at the fac- 
tory has decreased from $.", per barrel 
in 1880 to 80 cents per barrel in 1915. 
The wonderful development of the cement 
industry in the United States dates from 
the Introduction of the rotary kiln fired 
with powdered coal in 1895. The United 
States Imports comparatively little 
hydraulic cement, amounting to less than 
100,000 barrels a year. Twenty years 
ago the imports of cement were more 
than '■'•'■'< per cent of the domestic product, 
whereas in recent years they are less than 
0.1 per cent. There is little or no need 
to import any ordinary cement, for all 
parts of the country arc well supplied 
with the raw material and are not de- 
pendent upon any foreign source. The 
annual exports of hydraulic cement 
slightly exceed 4,000,000 barrels, or 
nearly 5 per cent of the production. 

Clay <nid Clay Products 
Clay. The United states possesses 
immense quantities of clay, which are 
both suitable and available for the man- 
ufacture of clay products. In 1014 the 
production of raw clay (not Included in 
the pottery or brick and tile business) 
in the United States was valued at 
$3,756,568. The closing of imports of 
clay from Europe on account of the war 
has resulted in an increased demand for 
high grade fire clay to replace the im- 
ported material. While many of the 
American clays contain a small percent 
age of iron, a process of eliminating the 
excess iron has been devised and suc- 
cessfully used in making some of the 
undeveloped clays available for higher 
uses. The great achievements of the 
clay working industries in the last half 
century are due to the use of American 
ma.ie machines; the establishment of 



ceramic schools ; the advertising cam- 
paigns carried on by the manufacturers 
of clay products, and the improvement 
in the quality of wares. 

Pottery Prod nets. — The value of the 
pottery products produced in the United 
States in 1915 was $37,289,456, as com- 
pared with $35,398,161 in 1014, an in- 
crease of 5 per cent. With the excep- 
tion of white china, all of the pottery 
products increased in value in 1915 as 
compared with the previous year. 

Ohio is the leading pottery State, its 
principal product being white ware, the 
output of which in 1915 was valued at 
$10,184,834, or nearly two thirds of the 
State's production, which was $15,894,- 
507, or almost one half the total white 
ware production of the United States. 
New Jersey ranks second in the value 
of pottery products, West Virginia third. 
New York fourth, Indiana fifth and 
Pennsylvania sixth. 

The value of the imports of pottery 
was $6,628,086, or $1,770,507 less than 
in 1014. The decrease in the imports 
was largely due to commercial condi 
tions in Europe. The exports from do- 
mestic' production amounted to $563,452 
ami re-exports from foreign imports 
$94,705. 

Brick (t)id Tile — The brick and tile 
industry forms about 78 per cent of the 
clay products and in 1014 amounted to 
$129,588,822, as compared with $143, 
296,757 in 101.:. Ohio, as in the pot- 
tery business, leads in this industry with 
$21,815,392, followed by $20,100,495 for 
Pennsylvania, other important States 
in order of production are Illinois, New 
Jersey, New York, Missouri and Cali- 
fornia. 

Fluorspar 

The production of fluorspar In th.> 
United States in 1915 w»s the largest on 
record with a total of 136,941 short 
tons, valued at $704,47."). In 1883 the 
production was only 4.000 tons. In 
1915 there were imported into the United 
States 7.107 tons, valued at $22.s7s. 
compared with 10,205 short tons, valued 
at $38,943, in 1014. The principal im- 
ports are from England. The Increased 
production of fluorspar in 1915 was 
taken care of by the great demand for 
its ujse in the manufacture of steel. 



192 



mi i; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



The American deposits occur in Illi- 
nois, Kentucky, New Mexico. Colorado. 
New Hampshire ami Arizona, and are 
ample to supply domestic requirements 
in case of emergency. The American 
product is of much higher grade than 
the imported material. There is need 
for an improvement in mining methods 
and processes for its preparation for 
market. 

Gypsum 

The amount of gypsum produced in 
the United states in 1915 was 2,447,613 
short tons, valued at $6,596,893. Prac- 
tically one fourth of this production is 
from New York, with Iowa. Michigan 
and Ohio following next in order. The 
gypsum beds in these States are large, 
while many of the Western States con- 
tain immense beds that have not been 
worked. There were 77 active quarries 
and 69 calcining plants in operation in 
1915. 

Phosphate Rock 

The production of phosphate rock in 
the Qnited states in 1915 amounted to 
1,835,667 long tons, valued at $5,413,- 
111. The 1915 production showed a de- 
crease of 898,376 long tons as compared 
with the production in 1014. The de- 
creased production was the result of 
conditions in Europe, whereby exports 
were not as large as in previous years. 
Shipments to Germany, which hitherto 
las l a a large consumer, have prac- 
tically ceased. As ,-i result mining oper- 
ations were either curtailed or suspended 
entirely. The principal States producing 
phosphate rock are Florida, Tennessee 
and South Carolina. 

While tiie progress toward more effl- 
cienl mining and milling methods has 

I ecu greal ill recenl years, yet the waste 

is much greater than it should he. The 
phosphate deposits are large in the 
South Atlantic States and in the far 
West, especially Idaho. Utah, Wyoming 

and Montana. They are in close pros 

imity to - Iting centers where there 

is an abundance Of raw material for the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid, which is 
so essential in converting the insoluble 
rock to a soluble salt. Phosphate rock 
finds its principal use in the manufac- 
ture of fertilizer and for this reason it 



is of vital importance to everybody. It 
has no mineral substitute, hence the de- 
posits should he conserved by their 
efficient utilization. 

Potash 

The production of potash salts in the 
United states in 1915 was valued at 
$342,000, which, while small, indicates 
the possibility of establishing a domes- 
tic potash industry. The imports of 
refined potash salts in 1915 amounted 
To 170,555,450 pounds, valued at $3,765,- 
22 1. or slightly more than U."> per cent 
of those in 1913. Taking all potash 
salts together, the quantity imported in 
1915 was about one tenth of that under 




55.000 BARREL OIL TANK STRUCK BY 
LIGHTNING AT TULSA, OKLA. 

normal conditions, when the total im- 
ports amount to about $15,000,000 annu- 
ally. The import- of potash salts are 
almost exclusively from Germany. Ex- 
perimental work on potash salts from 
different source* was active during the 
year and Government bureaus are using 
every effort to discover new sources of 
these valuable salts and methods for 
their production. The following possible 
sources are being investigated: (a) 




I. Photographing Length of Flame. 2. Ballistic Pendulnm of Explosive. 3. Gas and Dust 

Gallery. 4. Explosion in Dust Explosion Gallery. 5. Long Combustion Chamber. 

6. Calorimeter for Determining the Heating Quality of Coal 

INTERESTING TESTS OF THE BUREAU OF MINES 



V.H 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Saline residues ; (&) natural and arti- 
ficial bitterns; (c) alunite and similar 
minerals; (d) potash bearing feldspars; 
I- i greensand marls, and (/) organic 
sources, as seaweed, molasses residues, 
etc. 

Salt, Bromine <nt<1 Calcium Chloride 

The amount of salt marketed in 1915 
was 38,231,496 barrels, valued at $11,- 
747,686, an increase in quantity of 9.8 
per cent and in value 15.2 per cent as 
compared with 1!H4. In 1915 the United 
States produced 99.2 per cent of the 
salt used, hence no need for Importing 
this staple commodity. 

Bromine Is produced in connection 
with the manufacture of salt in Michi- 
gan. Ohio and West Virginia. The total 
amount produced in 1915 was 855,857 
pounds, valued at $856,307. The high 
price of bromine in 1915 was due in 
part to the larger demand from abroad, 
where it is reported to be used in making 
asphyxiating gas. 

Calcium chloride is one of the by- 
products of the natural brines of the 
Ohio Valley. A large amount of this 
salt is being wasted at present and no 
doubt new uses will lie found which will 
stimulate its recovery. 

Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid 
Sulphur. The principal production of 

sulphur in the United States is from 
the sulphur wells of Louisiana and 
Texas. The production of sulphur in 
1914 was .•;i>T.i;::4 long tons, valued at 
$5,954,236. The United states produces 
sufficient sulphur for domestic consump- 
tion and is now able to compete with 
Italy, which ranks second. In 1909 the 
exports of sulphur amounted to .".7.000 
long tons, while in 1914 98,153 long 
tons were export,.,], valued at $1,807,- 
334. In 1914 26,135 tons were 
imported. 

The mining of sulphur in Louisiana is 
hy the Frascn process, whereby super 
heated water is forced into the sulphur 
beds. The hot water melts the sulphur. 

so that it Is pumped to the surface in 
a molten condition. 

Sulphuric Acid. The most important 
chemical manufactured in the United 
States is sulphuric acid, the raw ma 
terial for which is abundant in the form 



of native sulphur, pyrite and sulphur 
fumes from metallurgical plants. The 
production of sulphuric acid in the 
United states in 1915 was 3,868,152 
short tons, valued at $29,869,080. Sn] 
phuric acid is an important item in the 
fertilizer industry and in the manufac- 
ture of explosives. Tiie manufacture of 
sulphuric acid is now becoming one of 
the important by-product processes in 
connection with the metallurgy of cop- 
per, whereby the sulphur fumes from 
the sulphide ores may he roll,., -ted and 
converted into acid. This is being done 
on a la rue scale in Tennessee, and there 
are a number of important copper 
smelters in the West where thousands 




Photo Underwood & Underwood 

HYDRAULIC MINING 

of tons of sulphur are wasted each day. 
nil of which could be converted into sul- 
phuric acid and become a source of 
profit, instead of being a detriment to 
growing vegetation, as is the case at 
present. 

I//.V , Uaneou8 Non-metallic Products 

Arsenic.- White arsenic u recovered 
as a by-product from sonic of the copper 
smelters. The total production in 1!»14 
was 4.o?o short tons, valued at $313,147. 

Af>'be-8t08. The production of asbestos 
in the United states in 1915 amounted 
to l.T.:i short tons, valued at $76,952. 
This represents an increase of .",'.1 per 
cent in quantity and 306 per cent m 
value as compared with l:»14. The 
asbestos deposits in the United states 
are not extensive and for this reason 

practically all ,,r the asbestos used m 
the country is imported, largely from 
Canada, Arizona, Idaho, Georgia, Call- 



THE MINERAL IMH STKY 



195 



fornia and Wyoming contain promising 
deposits of asbestos. 

Asphalt. — The production of natural 
asphalt from mines and quarries in the 
United States in 1915 amounted to 75,- 
751 short tons, valued at $526,490. The 
total production was about 5 per cent 
less than in 1914. The quantity of 
manufactured asphalt produced from 
domestic petroleum in 1915 was 004,503 
short tons, valued at $4,715,583, used 
principally for road building, and 3S8,- 
.">18 short tons from Mexican petroleum, 
valued at $3,730,436. 



'ieorgia, Massachusetts and Texas. Flor- 
ida produced about 75 per cent. 

Garnet. — Practically all of the garnet 
in the United States is used for abrasive 
purposes. The production in 1914 was 
4,231 tons, valued at .$145,510. 

0( ins and Precious stum*. — The pro- 
duction of gems and precious stones in 
the United States is insignificant as 
compared with the imports. The total 
production in 1914 was $124,651, as com- 
pared with imports valued at $19,211, 
084 in 1914 and $45,431,998 in 1913. 

Graphite. — The 1915 production was 



LABOR AND ACCIDENT STATISTICS FOR THE MINING INDUSTRY 

[Compiled from reports of the U. 8. Bureau of Mines) 





Number killed 


Number injured 






Total 


Per 1,000 
employed 


Total 


Per 1,000 
employed 


Number 
employed 


Metal Mines: 

1911 


695 
661 
683 
" 559 
553 

47 
33 
38 

16 
23 
30 

188 
213 
183 
180 
148 

2,656 
2,419 

2,785 
2,454 
2,269 

46 
45 
38 


4.19 
3.91 
3.57 
3.54 
3.64 

2.29 
1.19 
1.21 

1.07 
1.52 

1.62 

1.69 
1.88 
1 .72 
2 . 05 
1.47 

3.65 
3.35 
3.73 

:i 2-2 
3.09 

1.89 
2.02 
1.22 


26,577 
30,734 
32,971 
30,216 
35,295 

4,247 

.",.c,7:-i 
5,718 

1,977 
1.434 
2,095 

5,390 
0.562 
7,7.S<t 
7,836 
9,671 

* 

* 
* 
* 

2,514 
2,189 
2,852 


160.12 
181.65 
172.37 
191 .10 
232 . 02 

206 . 53 
203.12 
182.53 

131.93 
96.71 

1 1 2 . S5 

48.58 
57.93 
12 S3 
89.11 
96.30 

103.27 

98.10 
91.82 


165.979 
169,199 


1912 


1913 


1914 


158,115 


1915 


Smelters: 

1913 


20,564 
27,879 
31,327 

14.985 
15,128 
18,5(14 

110,954 
113,105 
106,278 
S7.936 
100,740 

728,348 
722,662 
747,644 

7(13.185 
734,008 

24.345 
22,313 
31,060 


1914 

1915 


Ore Dressing Plants: 

1913 

1914 


1915 

Quarries: 

1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 

1915 

Coal Mines: 

1911 


1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

Coke Ovens: 

1913 

1914 

1915 



* Not available. 



Bora.c. — The production of borax in 
1914 amounted to 62,400 short tons, 
valued at $1, 404. 400. The larger part 
of the borax production was from south- 
ern California. 

Feldspar. — The amount of feldspar 
produced in the United States in 1915 
was 113.709 short tons, valued at $629,- 
316, representing a reduction of about 
16 per cent in the amount produced. 

I tiller's- Earth. — The production of 
fuller's earth in 1915 in the United 
States was 47.901 tons, valued at $489,- 
219. Six States reported production as 
follows: Arkansas. California, Florida, 



4.71 s short tons, valued at $429,631. 

Lime. — The production of lime in the 
United States in 1915 amounted to 
3,589,679 short tons, valued at $14,336,- 
750. an increase of 6.2 per cent in 
quantity and 8 per cent in value over the 
figures for 1914. The number of plants 
in operation decreased from 954 in 1914 
to 905 in 1917,. 

Magnesite. — The majority of crude 
magnesite comes from California. The 
production in 1914 was 11,293 short 
tons, valued at $124,22:',. The imports 
i.r magnesia and magnesite amounted to 
$1,453,508. 



196 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Mint.- The value of the mica produced 
In the Dnited States in 1915 was $428,- 
769. The average price of sheet mica 
was r,s cents a pound, as compared with 
50 cents in P»14 and 21 cents in 1913. 
North Carolina produced more than one 
half of the total production, followed by 
New Hampshire, Idaho and South Dakota. 

Mineral Paints. — The production of 
mineral paint in 1914, including had 
and zinc pigments, amounted to 173,557 
short tons, valued ;lt $10,451,746. 

Sand and crurc!. — The production of 
glass sand in P.»14 amounted to 1,619,- 
649 short tons, valued at $1,568,030. 
The production of sand and grave] foi 
moulding, building and other purposes 
was 77,662,086 short tons, valued at 
$22,278,969. 

Slate. The production of slate in l'.il.~> 
in the Dnited states was valued at 
$4,958,515, a decrease of 13 per cent 
as compared with 1!>14. Pennsylvania 
and Vermont produced more than 86 pel- 
cent of the total roofing slate, the re- 
mainder coming largely from Maryland, 
Virginia and New York. 

Exports of slate in 1915 were $46 137, 
as compared with $139,125 in 1!H4. The 
exports were the lowest since 1895. Tile 
imports amounted to $2,768 in 1915, as 
compared with $4,855 in 1914. 

Talc and Soapstone. -The amount of 
talc and soapstone produced in 1915 
wa- 1st;, 891 tons, valued at $1,891,582 



QUABBY INDUSTRY 

The value of the quarry products 
in the Dnited states. Including 
granite, basalt, trap rock, limestone, 
sandstone and marble used for build- 
ing, monumental, paving and other 
purposes, amounted t<» $77,412,292 in 
1 ( .)14. The granite production was 
valued at $20,028,019, 30 per cent of 
which was used in building, 23 per 
cent in monumental work. 14 per 
cent in paving and 19 per cent as 
crushed nn-k. The limestone indus- 
try is the largest, amounting to $33, 
894,155, of which 10 per cent is used 
in building and nearly 60 per cent as 
crushed stones, the remainder being 
used for paving, curbing, Bagging 
and riprap. The marble industry is 
the third in size, amounting to $8,- 
121.412. of which sixty per cent is 
used in building and thirty per cent 
for monumental purposes. Sand- 
stone amounted to $7,501,808, while 
basalt and traprock amounted t<> 
$7,865,998. 




ELECTRICALLY-OPERATED GANTRY CRANE SERVING BLOCK PILE 



THE MINERAL INDUSTRY 



lit? 




WORLDS PRODUCTION OF COPPER, TIN & LEAD 




WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF DIAMONDS AND PRECIOUS STONES 



198 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 







1. ,..,,...^ f|u..„ 



Km a i <■ 



(/S.. — .j«- |«*».»( • <» i«y*J 



Copyright Muuu & Co. 



THE GREATEST INVENTOR OE THE AGE 



CHAPTEE XVI. 

THE PATENT OFFICE AND INVENTION 
SINCE 1845 

HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS KEPT PACE WITH THE 

INVENTOR 

By WILLIAM T. WYMAN 



IN 1845, the birth year of the 
Scientific American-, the present 
patent system was nine years old. 
In 1S36 the Patent Office was placed 
on a distinct basis, the system re- 
organized and the examination or 
American method of searching pat- 
ents inaugurated. 

THOMAS JEFFERSON WAS THE FIRST 
COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS 

The American patent system was 
founded under the act of IT'.M). Un- 
der this act the Secretary of State, 
the Secretary of War and the At- 
torney General constituted a board 
to consider all applications for pat- 
ents. Thomas Jefferson, the tirst 
Secretary of State, was in effect the 
first Commissioner of Patents and 
the first Examiner. It is said that 
he personally examined into and de- 
termined the patentability of every 
application tiled during his first 
years in office as head of the State 
Department The grant of a patent 
then was not only a procedure of 
exceeding dignity, being signed by 
the President, the Secretary of State 
aud the Attorney General, but was 
issued with some reluctance. Only 
three patents were permitted to see 
the light of day in 1700. 

From this modest beginning, the 
business of the patent system grew 



slowly, but steadily. From 1790 to 
1802 it required but one State De- 
partment clerk to perform all the 
clerical work pertaining to the Pat- 
ent < Mlice. the ent ire records of winch 
were contained in a dozen pigeon- 
holes. 1'p to 1S36, about 111,(100 pat- 



INCREASE OF POPUL\TION. TOTAL WEALTH,| 

VALUE OF PRODUCTS AND ANNUAL ISSUE 

OF PATENTS FROM 1S50 TO 1910. 




ents were granted. In that year, 
the Patent Office became an indepen- 
dent bureau, headed by a commis- 
sioner, assisted by one examiner and 
six other subordinate clerks and em- 
ployees. While the reorganization 
gave the Office a dignity and stand- 
ing it did not have before, still the 
force provided to cope with the 
pressing demands of inventors does 
not now appear to be excessively 



Copyright by Muni] .v Co., in. 



200 



nil; COUNTRY A.Mi ITS RESOURCES 



large. And yet critics, whose sense 
of economy was more acute than 
were their sifts df imagination, de- 
cried the sheer waste entailed by an 
organization so extravagant in men. 
But applications came pouring in. 
and in the following year the ex- 



The United States of America. 

..,,.. ,!,.!,. l men l'..itni (hall come 






AN EARLY PATENT 

One of the first patents signed by President 

Washington in possession of Munn & Co. 



amining corps had to be doubled )>y 
the appointment of an additional ex- 
aminer, and in 1839 the position of 
two assistant examiners was cre- 
ated to keep pace with the growing 
business. 

The act of 1793 was the only one 



which provided for the grant of a 

patent without examination. In 
1836 the modern examination sys- 
tem was instituted, by which a 
search through patents and publica- 
tions was made to determine the 
question of novelty. This act also 
for the lirst time made a positive 
requirement for the inclusion of a 
claim in the specification in the fol- 
lowing terms : 

"He [the inventor] shall positively 
specify and point out the part, improve- 
ment or combination which lie claims 
as his own invention or discovery." 

THE EAKLY DAYS OF THE PRESENT 
PATENT OFFICE 

In 1836 the erection of the Patent 
Office was begun; the building was 
finished in 1840. This original struc- 
ture forms the F Street wing of the 
present building. In ls4."> the pat- 
ent system was well on its way and 
the Office properly housed, with an 
official force of one commissioner, 
two examiners, and two assistant ex- 
aminers. In that year, 1.2 Hi new 
applications were tiled, besides many 
caveats, and the work was becoming 
too heavy for this limited force to 
handle effectively. This condition 
became and continues to bo chronic. 

Even as early as 1850, only five 
years after the founding of the 
'■Scientific American" and but four- 
teen years after the reorganization 
of the Patent Office. American inven- 
tions were numbered among the 
most notable produced. In isr,7, 
this country issued over one-third 
more patents than Great Britain, 
which at that time had a substantial 
ly greater population. In that year. 




Est i 



202 



01 i; COl Vi'KY A.\n its RESOURCES 




■41950 FATfffrS 

3S6ro SArrrtrs 
M?9Z FArs/rrs 

!3273 fArenri 

?aa57 PArrnrs 
i3?'i rArrnrs 



HOW THE NUMBER OF PATENTS HAS INCREASED YEAR BY YEAR 



the United Slates with a populatiOB 
of 23,000,000 issued 2,910 patents, 
Prussia with almost 17,000,000 is- 
sued 48, while Russia, with 70.- 
000,000 population, issued 24 patents. 
Commissioner Holt, in his annual 
report for that year, in reviewing 
the statistics, grows eloquent and 
philosophizes thus: 

"As the light <if liberty waxes dim- 
mer, ■-" does tin' Inventive genius Bag 
;inil dull apace, until finally, amid the 
darkness of the political night which 

br Is over Eastern hinds, it is utterly 

extinguished." 

I II I \ S II BE! II M I'l MOD or \MERT- 
t \\ INVENTION 

During this decade, the one im- 
mediately preceding Hie <'ivil war, 
the stimulating Influence of inven- 
tion upon industry became notice- 
ably apparent. Southern New Eng- 
land was tending to become a gigan- 
tic workshop ami the character of 
.■mire sections of New York and 
Pennsj Ivania ami < >hio radically 
changed from agricultural to indus- 
trial communities. The invention of 
i he sewing machine the greatest 
labor-saving device of the ages- <was 
of itself a tremendous stimulus, ami 
the opening up of the Wesl througb 

the rail Ida 1 1 meant activity in iron 

i roductioD ami the basic engineering 



industries. The reaper and the 
thresher made the opening up of the 
West profitable and the inventions 

in Grearms, machine tools, locks and 




ELIAS HOWE, JR. 

inventor of Hie Sewing Machine 

Born .inly 9, 1819 

Died o, tobi r I. !>•;: 



THE PATENT OFFICE 



.'i 13 




MONUMENT TO THE THREE HOWES AT 
SPENCER, MASS. 



labor-saving devices and textile ma- 
chinery initiated now industries and 
accelerated the growth of the coun- 
try by leaps and bounds. By the 
time the Civil war broke upon the 
country, only a quarter of a century 
after the inauguration of the pres- 
ent patent system, and in spite of 
the pre-eminently agricultural char- 
acter of her pursuits, this country 
gave every evidence that she was to 
be among the first of the industrial 
nations, 

AFTER THE CIVIL WAP. 

The distracting period of the Civil 
war over, activity in enterprise in- 
creased energetically, and in the 
year after the Civil war closed there 
were filed in the office over three 
times as many applications as were 
filed in 1861. During the war. the 
Bessemer process was developing, 
and the influence of this most stimu- 
lating of inventions, which inaugur- 
ated the age of steel and our present 



intensive industrial era, became felt 
not long after its close. Then began 
a period of true national expansion 
— the further developing of the 
West, with strenuous enterprise in 
reaching out with new railroads, 
building of steel mills and locomo- 
tive works — marking an inflation of 
energy, industry and finance, which 
culminated in the severe panic of 
1S73. The country paused for a 
little while and took account of 
stock at the great Centennial Ex- 
position in 3N7<5. The wonders of 
our material advance, practically all 
of which were induced by invention, 
such as the Corliss engine, the tex- 
tile machines, woodworking tools, 
machine tools, the sewing machine, 
hydraulic machinery and various 
kinds of automatic appliances, were 
there spread out for inspection to 
demonstrate the ingenuity of the 
American inventor and the intimate 
relation existing between him and 
what was making American devel- 
opment. 




A. B. WILSON 
Sewing Machine Inventor 



204 



(Hi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



The period from 1865 to i vs| » gave 
inkling of the dawn of a radically 
new era. The electrical age was 
prognosticated in the dynamos of 
Gramme, Siemens and Brush, the 
Bell telephone and the arc lamp. 
Bui they left no impression upon in- 
dustry or flie social life of the time 



THE MOST FERTILE 
FIELDS OF IN 

VKVJI.'N. 

Patents. 
Carriages and Wagons. 
Clasps, Buckles, Bullous 18,772 
Harvesters 

■ ; 

Mills 

Machine Elements.. . . 
Builders' Hardware. . 

I '!■■■ s 12,164 

Locks and Latches 11,930 

Mills, Grinding, etc.... 18,803 

Railways 11,347 

Railway I . - 15,462 

Seeders and Planters 11,059 

W a It r Distribution— 

Mains and Pipes, I 

and Fa ucets, 1 

Couplings, etc 21,592 

\V 1 Working 10,060 

Washing M 

Other Laundrj 

ances 1 1,385 

Steam Engines 11,907 





S( IME "I l HI MOST PRO- 
LIFIC r-\ ENTORS. 

I 

Elihn Thomson 617 

Francis H 
Edward H 

.•jusc 340 




DIAGRAM SHOWING RATIO OF IN- 
CREASE OF DNITED STATES 
PATENTS FOR FIVE YEARS 



until the nexf period got into swing; 
From 1867 to l s 7'.'. the annual cum- 
ber of applications filed remained 
stationary and averaged around 
20,000 per year, but aboul the time 
specie payments were resumed, the 
country appeared to take mi a new 
lease of life. In 1m',7, 21,276 appli- 
cations were filed, and in ls7'.». 20,- 
059; in the next year (1880) the 
number increased to 23,012, and in 
18S9 reached 10,575, more than dou- 
ble the number filed ten years before. 
In that decade the country literally 
jumped forward and inventive in- 
genuity reached the golden age of 
its activity. 

THE ADVENT OF THE HIKED INVENTOR 

The larger concerns have in con- 
nection with their patent depart- 
ments or in association with them 
research laboratories with a corps of 
highly trained engineers and tech- 
nical and scientific assistants. Ev- 
ery improvement of a patentable na- 
ture, if of proved utility or possible 
merit, becomes the subject matter of 
an application, not only for the mon- 
opoly that a patent may bring, but 
also as a protection in its manufac- 
ture and as a matter of record. The 
patent department advises the tech- 
nicians whether a proposed device 
may lie patented or whether it in- 
fringes an existing patent, and also 
appraises the validity and value of 
patents offered to the company for 
sale. The experimental department 
will try out new ideas or develop 
them to some conclusion. Many of 
the big things now come through 
these organizations, for frequently 
in the evolution of an art. an instru- 
mentality may he so complex, re- 
quire the expenditure of so much 
skill and money to develop and dem- 
onstrate, that only a company with 
large resources is able to handle the 
proposition. Thus, the General Elec- 
tric Company took several years, 
plus an expenditure of a few mil- 
lion dollars, to develop the Curtis 
turbine. It is by no means uncom- 
mon for a promoter to spend over 
spin, (ion to develop a process or ap- 



THE PATENT OFFICE 



21 15 




JOHN ERICSSON 
Inventor of the "Monitor" 

paratUS so it will be marketable. 
Edison, who. if not incorporated, is 
a host in himself, frequently spent 
thousands upon thousands in inves- 
tigations and has made experiments 
by the hundreds before he was in 
a position to announce results. There 
are some devices which are so in- 
tricate in design, notably type set- 
ting and casting machines, that any- 
where from a quarter to one million 
dollars may be expended in construc- 
tion and improvement, in trials and 
changes, only to prove eventually, 
what could not possibly be deter- 
mined in advance, that it could not 
meet the various requirements de- 
manded in commercial practice. 
Mark Twain sank his personal for- 
tune of several hundred thousands 
in a typesetting device, probably the 
most intricate bit of mechanism 
ever devised, because, while the ma- 
chine did everything it was designed 
to do. it was too intricate to be 
understood by the ordinary me- 
chanic. 

Then again, the device may lie 



simple enough, its merits sufficiently 
obvious, but it may require more 

business acumen, push and advertis- 
ing to introduce it than would be re- 
quired to market an article of staple 
and competitive character, or some- 
times no character at all. A well- 
known instance of this inertia on 
the part of the public is the case of 
a certain safety razor, which re- 
quired prodigious efforts on the part 
of its promoters to eventually get 
the public to use what appeared to 
be a self-evident filling of a long- 
felt want. Xo inventor can afford 
to create without the protection of 
the patent laws, because the labor 
and expense he is placed under pre- 
liminary to establishing the utility 
of his invention becomes a fixed 
charge and the very means to handi- 
cap him against a piratical competi- 
tor, who can start without such a 
burden. 

THE INFINITE POSSIBILITIES THAT LIE 
IX INVENTION 

In 1844, Commissioner Ellsworth, 
contemplating the 13,500 patents 




CAPTAIN JAMES B. EADS 



206 



on: coi -.ntuv ami its RESOURCES 



granted up to thai year, over 500 
of which were issued in the year 
ls-4.'!, and apprehending a cessation 
of all endeavors in the Qeld of in- 
vention, uttered this prediction in 
his official report : "The advance- 
ment of the arts, from year to year, 
taxes our credulity and seems to 
presage the arrival of that period 
when human improvement must 
end." The commissioner could well 
marvel at the astounding advances 
made in labor-saving devices during 
his own lifetime, but what would 
have been his mental state could he 
have been endowed with prophetic 
vision and have foreseen hut a frac- 
tion of the inventive activity which 
has taken place in a man's lifetime 
from the date of his utterance? The 
number of patents now is over a 
million, the annual issue is more 
than three times the number of all 
the patents -ranted up to his day. 
and the examining corps has in- 
creased from four to almost four 
hundred without being able to keep 
pace with the ever growing tide of 





R. J. GATLING 
Inventor of tlie Qatling Gun 



$300,000 FOR A PATENT 

THE AUTOGRAPHIC KODAK 

THE DEVICE 

THE PRODUCT THE [NVENTOB 

THE MATERIAL REWARD 

new work. 11 is estimated that the 
value of American manufactures at- 
tributable directly or indirectly to 
patentable inventions amounts to 
the enormous total of more than 
twenty Pillion dollars, which is 
about four times the value of nil 
taxable property in the United 
states at the time Commissioner 
Ellsworth made his report. 

It has been said that the single 
invention of producing steel by the 
Bessemer process doubled, directly 
or through its influence, the world's 
wealth in the third of a century af- 
ter its inl reduction. 

More astounding arc* the figures 
relating to the electrical Industries, 
including telephony, central station 
lighting and power, and electric rail- 
ways, the latest figures available 
showing an investment in the United 
States alone of seven billion dol- 
lars, annual u'ros^ revenue or sales 



THE PATENT OFFICE 



21 17 




DAGUERRE 
From an original Daguerreotype 

of over a billion, in which three 
quarters of a million men were en- 
gaged, Mt an annual pay-roll of over 
three hundred and fifty million dol- 
lars. These industries were either 
non-existent in 1880 or in their in- 
cipient stage at that time. Their 
origins and every advance therein 
were directly founded on inventions, 
every one of which is patented and 
of record in the Patent Office. 

THE TREND OF INVENTION 

The activity of the different 
classes in the Patent Office from 
time to time reflects accurately the 
changes which constantly pass in the 
world of industry and the applied 
arts. The basic pursuit in this coun- 
try always being the tilling of the 
soil, patents for agricultural imple- 
ments have occupied a prominent po- 
sition, both in numbers and import- 
ance throughout its history. The 
invention of the sewing machine in- 
itiated a period of great activity in 
a new art, while the telephone let 



loose a flood of inventions for adap- 
tations and improvements. The new 
electro-chemical industry came into 
being about the middle of the eight- 
ies and patent activity with rela- 
tion thereto was high at the same 
time, The incandescent lamp start 
ed the electric age, in whose vortex 
we still are, and patent concern in 
all things electrical is still inten- 
sive. The rise and fall of the bicy- 
cle, the wave of interest in auto- 
matic car couplings, the first surg- 
ings of activity in aeroplane inven- 
tion, and the deep concern of the 
great ingenious to solve the urgent 
non-refillable bottle problem — all 
these movements have been reflected 
in the filing of applications in the 
Patent Office. In recent years the 
automobile is establishing records, 
the arts relating to internal com- 
bustion motors, carbureters, gear- 
ings, self-starters, accessories, alloy 
steels and heat treatment of steels 
being specially active. 

The United States has by far the 
proudest record in the field of in- 
vention; whether reckoning by the 
number of pioneer products, their 
ingenuity, or their far-reaching ef- 




GE0RGE WESTINGHOUSE 
Inventor of tlie Air T-rak' . !■ 



208 



OUR COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES 




Photo by Hoppe 

SIR HIRAM MAXIM 



fects in the greatest diversity of 
fields, she easily stands in first 
place. Particularly in labor-saving 
devices does she stand foremost. No 
one in all history has worked so 
hard to save labor as the Yankee. 
The greatest of all labor-saving de- 
vices, the sewing machine, is his, 
and outside of textile machinery, 
practically all the great advances in 
this department have been of his 
invention, as witness the cotton gin, 
the reaper, shoe machinery, type- 
writer and typesetting machines. 

Ill the held of electricity the Amer- 
ican shares pre-eminence with Eu- 
ropeans, and yet the three most sig- 
nal advances in electrical applica- 
tion are to his credit — the telegraph, 
telephone, and the incandescent 
lamp. Since 1880 (the typewriter 
was Invented a few years previous- 
ly i no revolutionary mechanical in- 
ventions comparable to those which 
signaled American Ingenuity previ- 
ously, was devised except the type- 
setting machine, hut in the held of 
electricity I incandescent lamp, trol- 



ley car, electric welding), optics 
(kinetoscope, transparent film) and 
air navigation (an absolutely new 

art) he did not remain inactive. 

SOME PROLIFIC INVENTORS 

Between 1^7^ and 1900, Thomas 
Edison had received 742 patents; F. 
H. Richards, 619; Elihu Thomson, 
444; Charles E. Scribner. :;74; L. 
C. Crowell, -!'.>.'!: Edward Weston, 
2S0; R. M. Hunter, 276; Charles J. 
Van Depoele, 24.") ; and (Jcor^e West- 
inghouse, 239, Up to 1910 Edison 
secured 003 patents, of which 71.3 
were electrical. Considering all the 
patents that are probably pending 
or in course of preparation, it is 
estimated that the number of his 
inventions is greater than 2,000. it 
is safe to assert that he is the most 
proline inventor of all time. 

Although Great Britain has more 
pioneer inventions to her credit in- 
volving fundamental operations that 
underlie all industry, than any other 
country, the only innovations of pio- 
neer character she has contributed 




rright, Harris & i;« lug 

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 



THE PATENT OFFICE 



200 



in the lasl one half century arc the 
basic process for making steel, the 
steam turbine, and the cyanide pro- 
cess. But the steam engine, the 
greatest invention of all ages, is 
hers, and so is the Bessemer process, 




DR. DIESEL 
Inventor of the Diesel Engine 

which inaugurated our present in- 
tensive industrial era. 

Germany before 1871 was an al- 
most negligible factor in the field 
of applied science, although she had 
previously to that date given ample 
evidence of her vigor in pure science. 
The adoption of a patent system 



based upon that of the United States 
was an extreme stimulus to inven- 
tion, and the impetus given to inven- 
tiveness is shown by the large num- 
ber of very important contributions 
she has devised in the last 35 years. 
and the increasing number of patents 
she has taken out in this country 
in recent years, now exceeding those 
applied for by any other foreign na- 
tion. To her sons is due the gas 
engine, the gasoline motor; the crude 
oil engine (Diesel motor) ; the auto- 
mobile; the Welsbach lamp: the 
tungsten lamp; the X-ray machine; 
the utilization of blast furnace 
gases for operation of gas engines; 
the superheating of steam in loco- 
motive practice ; the synthesis of in- 
digo ; the contact method of making 
sulphuric acid; the Goldschmidt 
thermit process, and the innumer- 
able and radical innovations in dye 
making, drugs, and chemicals. 

An interesting confirmation of the 
changing character of our population 
may be made by comparing the 
names of inventors prominent in the 
earlier periods of the country's his- 
tory with those which are found 
frequently scattered through the 
later additions of the Official Ga- 
zette. Fulton, Whittemore, Bigelow, 
Blanchard, Hoe, Campbell. Ames. 
Fairbanks, Howe, Colt, McCormick, 
etc., testify to the complete Anglo- 
Saxon predominance of former 
times, while such names as Betten- 
dorf, Mergenthaler, Pupin, Tesla, 
Christensen, Doherty, Frasch, Gal- 
lagher, Conner, Monnot, Krakau, 
# Mesta, Steinmetz, Sauveur, and Lin- 
denthal, which are abundantly 
sprinkled among the names listed in 
recent Official Gazettes, offer proof 
of the leavening that is going on in 
all departments of American life. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
MANUFACTURES 



THE extent of manufacturing 
operations in the United 
States is perhaps best under- 
stood by considering that during the 
year 1914 there were 8,265,426 per- 
sons engaged in manufacturing or 
29.4 per cent of all workers engaged 
in gainful occupations. < »f this num- 
ber, 264,872 were proprietors and 
firm members, 964,217 were salaried 
employees and 7,036,337 were wage 
earners. With the exception of the 
agricultural industry, the manufac- 
turing establishments of the United 
States employ more men than any 
other industry. 

With respect to the value of the 
products produced, manufactures 
rank rirst. the total value of the 
products turned out during the year 
1914 being $24,246,323,000. This 
amount represents the selling value 
or prices at the plants of the prod- 
ucts turned out and does not neces- 
sarily have any relation to the 
amount of sales for the year. The 
cost of materials used was $14,- 
368,089,000, leaving $9,878,234,000 
as the value added by manufacture 1 . 

The salaries and wages paid out 
for the year amounted to $5,367,- 
249.000, of which amount. $1,287,- 
917.000 was paid to the 904.217 sal- 
aried employees and $4,079,332,000 
to the 7,036,337 wage earners. 

It is impossible in the short space 
allotted to this subject to more than 
indicate, in a general way, the ex- 
tent of manufacturing operations in 
the United States. For convenience 
the industries are treated under the 
following headings: Manufactured 
Food Products, Textiles, Iron and 



Steel Manufactures, Transportation, 
the Electrical industry, the Leather 
Industry, Paper and Printing and 
Publishing, Chemicals and Allied 
Products and Miscellaneous Indus- 
tries. Detailed information relative 
to particular industries may be had 
by addressing the Bureau of the 
Census, Department of Commerce, 
Washington, I >. C. Unless otherwise 
stated the statistics given are for the 
census of manufactures for 1914. 




INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 

Tabulating inventory of manufacturing 

plants 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



£12 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



MANUFACTURED FOOD PRODUCTS 



SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT PACKING 

There were slaughtered for food in 
wholesale establishments during the 
year 1!»14. 7,149,042 beeves, 2,019,004 
calves, 15,951,860 sheep and lambs and 
goats and kids and .'54.441,913 hogs. 
The total products were valued at $1,- 
651,765,424. The fresh meat aggregated 
6,656,031,002 pounds, valued at $769,- 
383,846, comprising: 3,658,333,660 
pounds of beef, valued at $421,296,794 : 
194,698,880 pounds of veal, valued at 
$26,299,446; 629,232,690 pounds of mut- 
ton and lamb, including some goat meat. 
valued at $74,675,627; 1,877,099,071 
pounds of pork, valued at $226,535,734; 
and 296,666,701 pounds of edible offal, 
dnsscd poultry, goat meat, and game, 
valued at .S20.rv7G.245. Cured meat. 
consisting of dry salt, pickled and 
smoked beef and pork, exclusive of 
canned meat, sausage and meat pud- 
dings, aggregated 3,020,881,494 pounds, 
valued at $408,000,916, and comprised 
91,571,573 pounds of beef, valued at 
$14,395,316, and 2.029,309.741 pounds 
of pork, valued at $393,605,600. Canned 
goods, consisting of beef, pork, meat 
products, and other canned goods, ex- 
elusive of sausage, represented 160,- 
798,955 pounds, valued at $20,417,024. 
The output of sausage was 509,151,311 
pounds, valued at $68,195,522, including 
74,004,380 pounds of canned sausage, 
valued at $9,845,669, and also some 
sausage in paper cartons for which fig- 
ures are not available. These figures, 
however, do not include the output of 
establishments engaged primarily in the 
manufacture of sausage, (if lard — com- 
prising prime steam, pure leaf kettle 
rendered, leaf, refined and neutral — 
1,119.188,675 pounds, valued at $120,- 
414,007, was rendered. The production 
of compound lard and lard substitutes 
was 396,397,950 pounds, valued at $33,- 
037,467 : of oil — comprising oleo, lard. 
oeat's foot, and cooking oil— 23,217,082 
gallons, valued at $15,935,434; of raw 
and rendered tallow and oleo stock, 
209,614.135 pounds, valued at $13,732,- 
750; of oleo and lard stearin. 30,091,- 
991 pounds, valued at $2,752,42] : and 
of oleomargarine. G0.3N7.NS1 pounds, 
valued at $8,818,557. 

CANNING AND PRESERVING 

There were 538 establishments en- 
gaged in canning and preserving lish 
and oysters in the United States during 
the year 1914. the products of which 
were valued at $55,283,404. The total 

val f fish and oysters canned was 

$41,321,593, of which amount clams were 
valm, | al $670,363; oysters, $2,676,951; 
salmon. $27,633,284 :' sardines. $6,238, 
933; shrimp. $1,725,621; tuna. $1,638,- 
075 : and other fish, $737,766. The pro 
diui inn of smoked <>r dried fish was 
28,713.806 pounds, valued al $2,759,341 
and was made up as follows: Finnan 



haddie, 4,095,693 pounds, valued at 
$327,877 : halibut. 509,288 pounds, valued 
at $62,546; herring, 11,504,126 pounds 
valued at $719,640; salmon. 4,248,896 

pounds, valued at $638,975 : sturgeon, 
511,190 pounds, valued at $150,614; all 
other smoked or dried tish. 7,844 607 
pounds, valued at $859,689. The out- 
put of salt or pickled fish was 156,153,- 
589 pounds, valued at $9,200,162 as 
follows: Cod. 83,502,295 pounds, val- 
ued at $5,561,770; haddock. 4,947,286 
pounds, valued at $218,359: herring. 
22,150.974 pounds, valued al $668,838; 
mackerel. 6,224,313 pounds, valued at 
$519,727 : all other salted or pickled 
fish. 39,328.721 pounds, valued at $2,- 
231.468. 

There were 3.199 establishments en- 
gaged in the canning and drying of 
fruits and vegetables, the products of 
which were valued at $158,015,893. The 
value of canned and dried fruits and 
vegetables packed during the year was 
as follows: Canned vegetables. $84, 
413.007; canned fruits. $24,897,174 ; 
dried fruits. $34,771,912: canned soups, 
$7,877.057 : other products were valued 
at $6,056,083. 

FLOUR AND GRIST MILL PRODUCTS 

The products of the 10,787 establish- 
ments, which did merchant grinding 
during the year 1914. were valued at 
$875,496,013. 

The consumption of wheat by [lour 
mills and grist mills was 543,970,038 
bushels; rye, 12,748,135 bushels: corn, 
180,115,704 bushels: buckwheat. 5. 
478.045 bushels: barley. 20,288,396 
bushels; oats. 50,227.050 bushels; other 
grain, 4,277,864 bushels; alfalfa. 87,884 
tons; and other material. 121,965 tons. 

The output for the year 1914 was as 
follows: Wheat flour, 116,045,090 bar- 
rids, valued at $542,051,752; rye Hour 
and rye Graham, 1,926,795 barrels, val- 
ued at $7,801,413; buckwheat flour, 
125,622,189 pounds, valued at $3,754,- 
857; barley meal. 14,000,789 pounds, 
valued al $212,343; porn meal and corn 
flour. 16,327,993 barrels, valued at $54,- 
903.301 ; hominy and grits. 870.364,453 
pounds, valued at $13,767,561 : oatmeal. 
30, 451. 581 pounds, valued at $757,804; 
bran and middlings, 4,648.930 tons, val- 
ued at $104,350,655; f 1 and offal, 

4,753,280 tons, valued at $137,067,959; 
com oil, 301,949 gallons, valued at 
$152,208; breakfast foods, rolled oats, 
etc., 92,676,085 pounds, valued at $2,- 
932,238; all other cereal products were 
valued at $2,091,922 and all other prod- 
ucts at $5.502.ihio. 

kick. CLEANING AND POLISHING 

The total quantity of rough rice milled 
during the year 1914 was 1,036,587,825 
pounds, or 23,035,285 bushels (of 45 
pounds). Of this quantity 1,025,628,075 

pounds was of domestic production, and 
10,959,750 pounds of foreign. 



MANUFACTURES 



213 



The amount «>f clean rice obtained 
was 674,872,108 pounds, valued ;it $21,- 
655,105. Tliis was 65.1 per cent, by 
weight, of the rough rice milled. There 
were 31,053,118 pounds of polish, valued 
at $352,271. produced from rice during 
the year : 99,403,200 pounds of bran, 
valued at .$772,275 ; all other products 
were valued at $259,043. Thus the total 
value of all products derived from the 
cleansing and polishing of rice for the 
year 1914 amounted to $23,039,294. 

BUTTER, CHEESE AND CONDENSED MILK 

During the year 1914 there were 
7.9S2 establishments engaged in the but- 
ter, cheese and condensed milk indus- 



trv, whose products were valued at 
$370,818,729. The quantity of milk con 
sinned by these factories was 8,431,632, 
800 pounds, costing $114. .114, 929. The 
quantity of cream consumed was 2,383, 
828,265 pounds, costing $160,916,828. 

The products, valued at $370,818,729, 
were divided as follows: 786,013,489 
pounds of butter, valued at $223,179. 
254; 377,500.199 pounds of cheese, val 
ued at $50,931,925; 8S4.040.701 pounds 
of condensed and evaporated milk, val- 
ued at $59,374,948; 21,987,911 pounds 
of powdered milk, valued at $2,081,607; 
4.051.320 pounds of sugar, valued at 
$400,613 ; and other products valued at 
$34,850,382. 



TEXTILES 



CORDACE AND TWINE AND JUTE AND LINEN- 
GOODS 

The total value of the cordage and 
twine and jute and linen goods produced 
during the year 1914 amounted to $83,- 
228.424. There were produced during 
the year. 487.443,350 pounds of rope and 
binder twine, valued at $43,085.517 ; 
13,244.198 pounds of cotton rope, valued 
at $2,539.900 ; 105.249,077 pounds of 
twine, other than binder, valued at 
$13,990,522 ; 75.875.322 pounds of yarn, 
valued at $8,320.180 ; 5.707.008 pounds 
of linen thread, valued at $3,409,136; 
131. 827, OSS square yards of bags and 
bagging, valued at $0,440,594 ; 3,326.302 
square yards of jute carpets and rugs, 
valued at $810,845; and other products 
valued at $4,019,718. 

FELT GOODS 

The cost of all material required in 
the production of felt goods during the 
year 1914 was $0.S24.537. The total 
value of the products manufactured in 
the establishments engaged in this in- 
dustry was $13,092,705. There were 
produced in that year, 3.941,795 pounds 
of endless felt belts, valued at $4,104.- 
180 ; 3,028.286 pounds of boot and shoe 
linings, valued at $1,512,783; 7.431.152 
square yards of trimming and lining 
felts, valued at $1,048,583; 2.291.002 
pounds of saddle felts, valued at $973,- 
353. The remaining products, including 
table and piano covers, felt cloth, etc., 
were valued at $5,993.SG0. 

HATS, FUR-FELT AND WOOL-FELT 

The output of finished fur-felt hats 
in 1914 was 2.118.034 dozen, valued at 
$33,603,531. The total value of the 
products of the fur-felt industry was 
$37,349,744. 

The total value of the products of 
the wool-felt hat industrv in 1914 was 
$1,944,484. of which amount. $1,777,225 
represented the value of the 381,044 
dozen wool felt hats produced. 

HOSIERY AND KNIT GOODS 

During the year 1914 there were 1,- 
647 establishments engaged in the man- 



ufacture of hosiery and knit goods, the 
products of which were valued at $263,- 
925,855. There were 75.227,704 dozen 
pairs of hosierv produced, valued 
at $9S,130,205; 21, 758,775 dozen shirts 
and drawers, valued at $57,523,051 ; 
6.283.360 dozen combination suits, 
valued at $35,030,404 ; 2.249.142 dozen 
sweaters, valued at $26,195,002 ; 2.470,- 
183 dozen pairs of gloves and mittens. 
valued at $10,519,013; 987.178 dozen 
hoods, scarfs, etc., valued at $3,450,320 : 
274,544 dozen bathing suits, valued at 
$2,033,889; 03.204 dozen shawls, valued 
at $713,545. and 74.901 dozen pairs of 
leggings valued at $313,952. 

In the production of hosiery and knit 
goods there were 3,070 sets of cards 
used; 852.250 spindles; 65.328 sewing 
machines and 142,240 knitting machines 
of all classes. 

COTTON GOODS 

The quantity of raw cotton consumed 
in the 1,324 establishments engaged in 
the manufacture of cotton goods, dur- 
ing the year 1914, was 2,523.500,837 
pounds, costing $330,315,223. The other 
materials consumed were classified as 
follows: Cotton waste, 54,116,105 
pounds, costing $3,542,631 ; cotton 
yarns. 139.482,027 pounds, costing $39, 
793.131 ; yarns, other than cotton, 3,- 
309,277 pounds, costing $4,793,221. and 
libers, other than cotton, 4.270.470 
pounds, costing $3,203,202. 

The total value of the cotton goods 
produced from these materials was 
$701,152,268, divided as follows: 6,815, 
045.083 square yards of woven goods, 
valued at $488,728,054; 497.986,999 
pounds of varns. valued at $127,363,952 ; 
26.507.023 pounds of thread, valued at 
$22,917,099, and 13.284.875 pounds of 
cordage and rope, valued at $2,792,125. 
There were 317.360,019 pounds of col 
ton waste, valued at $14,421.92!). on 
hand at the end of the year. All other 
products were valued at $44,037,886. 

The woven goods manufactured were 
classified as follows : 248,539,379 
square vards of ducks, valued at $47.- 
921.989*; 489.001,133 square yards of 



214 



nil; < uIWTRY AXJ) ITS RESOURCES 



ginghams, valued ai $36,706,542; 1,422,- 
787,368 square yards of fancj weaves, 
valued at $131,813,609; 263,862.227 
square yards of napped fabrics, valued 
at $24,352,020; 29,128,703 square yards 
of velvets, corduroys, plushes, etc., val- 
ii.d at *s. .-,40.14::; T."..t:;lm;4 ! square 
yards of toweling and terry weaves, 
valued at $9,805,232; 97,981,783 square 
yards of mosquito netting and similar 
fabrics, valued at $2,820,524; 129,357, 
002 square yards of bags and bagging 
valued at $9,705,616; 10,137,710 square 
yards of tapestries, valued at $5,411,592; 
and 4,048,458,137 square yards of other 
woven goods, valued at $211,650,787. 

OILCLOTH AND LINOLEUM 

The total value of the oilcloth and 
linoleum produced by the establishments 
engaged in this industry in 1914 was 
$25,598,361. There was a decrease of 
58.9 per cent in the manufacture of 
oilcloth during the year l'.»14. over the 
year 1909, the last census year, but 
this was more than compensated for by 
the increase of 90.1 per cent in the 
amount of linoleum manufactured. The 
oilcloth produced was divided as fol 
lows: 7,536,379 square yards of floor 
oilcloth, valued at $1,483,731 : 18,357,- 
097 square yards of enameled oilcloth, 
valued at $2,495,255; and 59,358,872 
square yards of table, wall, shelf and 
stair oilcloth, valued at $6,025,348. The 
linoleum produced during the same peri- 
od was divided as follows : 33,306,669 
square yards of plain linoleum, valued 



at $10,043,436, and 8,479,202 square 
yards of inlaid linoleum, valued at $4.- 
725,837. All other products were val- 
ued at .'?824.754. 

SILK AND SILK GOODS 

During the year 1914 there were 900 
establishments engaged in the manufac- 
ture of silk and silk goods, in which 

the following materials were consul 1 : 

22,506,759 pounds of raw silk, costing 
$86,586,878; 3,080,750 pounds of spun 
silk. costing $7,940,156; 1,902,974 
pounds of artificial silk, costing $3,440,- 
154 ; 4,328,536 pounds of fringe and 
tloss. Including waste, noils, etc., cost- 
ing $3,066,297; 3,852,399 pounds of 
organzine and train, costing sitj.687,346 ; 
16,869,511 pounds of cotton yarn, cost- 
ing $6,163,240; 1.41.4. 299 pounds of 
mercerized cotton yarn, costing $1,078,- 
337; 1,987,918 pounds of woolen and 
woisted yarn, costing $2,087 804; £,- 
Ci4ri.ii.",."> pounds of mohair yarn, costing 
$1,604,302: and 291,<>72 pounds of other 
yarns, costing I?4.".N.'.I44. 

The total value of the finished prod- 
ucts was $253,764,170, the various prod- 
ucts being classified as follows: 216,- 
033,696 yards of broad silks, valued at 
$137,719,564; 142,713,359 yards, valued 
at $96,689,801, consisting of all silk goods 
and 73,320,337 yards, valued at $41, 
029,763, consisting of mixed silk goods; 
16,318,135 yards of velvets, valued at 
$8,570,022; 9,114,992 yards of plushes. 
valued at $10 : 135,S42 ; 477. <!!>!> yards 
of upholsteries and tapestries, valued at 




WORLDS SILK PRODUCTION 



MANUFACTURES 



5>1" 



$840,126; ribbons to the value of $38,- 
201,293 ; laces, nets, veils, etc.. to the 
value of $1,328,933 : embroideries to the 
value of $33.501) ; fringes and irimps to 
the value of $1,025,188 ; braids and 
bindings to the value of $3,073,048 ; 
tailors' trimmings to the value of $210,- 
741 : military trimmings to the value of 
$431.422 ; G59.540 pounds of machine 
twist silk, valued at $4,030,807; 744, 
70S pounds of sewing and embroidery 
silks, valued at $5,046,452; 157.791 
pounds of fringe and floss silks, valued 
at $598,354 ; 1,492.999 pounds of organ- 
zine, valued at $6,325,291.; 2.577.4(12 
pounds of tram, valued at $9,698,637, 
and 1,607.416 pounds of spun silk, val- 
ued at $4,577,058. Other products were 
valued at $13,516,248. 

There were in use, during the year, a 
total of 2,794,971 spindles, 85,058 looms 
of all kinds, and 6,826 jacquard ma- 
chines. 

WOOLEN AND WORSTED GOODS 
The total value of all the products of 
the 795 establishments engaged in the 
manufacture of woolen and worsted 
goods, during the year 1914, was $379.- 
484,379 as follows: '.Ht.it5o.3sl square 
yards of all-wool woolen fabrics, valued 
at $55,660,503 ; 222.327.115 square yards 
of all-wool worsted fabrics, valued at 
$141,778,035; 47.398.289 square yards of 
cotton warp woolen fabrics, valued at 
$13,598,007; 54.ii67.ols square yards of 
cotton warp worsted fabrics, valued at 
$14,897,757; 31,400,082 square yards of 



cotton-mixed fabrics, valued at $11,710,- 
610; 2,176,264 square yards of all-wool 
flannels for underwear, valued at sssu.- 
494 : 4,995,575 square yards of cotton 
mixed flannels for underwear, valued at 
$1,089,661 : 16. (t92.266 square yards of 
domett flannels and shirtings, valued at 
$2,814,054; 36,196,243 square yards of 
linings, Italian cloth and Iastings, valued 
at $9,804,661: S. 415.079 square yards 
of satinets and linsevs. valued at $1.- 
535. 291 ; 30.400,973 square yards of 
blankets, valued at $9,264,768; 8,164,- 
672 square yards of horse blankets, val- 
ued at $2,017,782; 514.226 square yards 
of carriage cloth, valued at $44.".. 223 ; 
1,658,865 square yards of carriage robes. 
valued at $1,233,555; 121,213 square 
vards of woven shawls, valued at $66,- 
365 ; 1,351,262 square yards of uphol- 
stery goods, valued at $1,539,381. and 
3.569.709 square yards of nil other 
woven goods, valued at $1,219,382. 
Woolen, worsted, merino, mohair and 
cotton yarns, noils and wool waste and 
tops and stubbing made for sale were 
valued at $101,137,599; all other prod- 
ucts were valued at $5,356,615. The 
amount received for contract work was 
$5,436,636. 

There were in operation during the 
year 4.220 sets of woolen cards. 2.34s.- 
722 mule spinning spindles, 1,531.862 
frame spinning spindles. 841.449 doub- 
ling and twisting spindles, 56.392 broad 
looms, 19.415 narrow looms. 13 hand 
looms. 2.294 wool-combing machines. 1,- 
201 pickers and 165 garnet machines. 



IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURES 



BLAST FURNACES 

Durint; the year 1914 there were 284 
active pig-iron blast furnaces in opera- 
tion. The pig-iron products of the 160 
establishments operating these furnaces 
aggregated 23,269.731 tons, valued at 
$312,639,706. and the value of other 
products amounted to $4,919,347, making 
a total of $317,559,053. The amount 
of iron ore used was 43.362,817 tons, 
costing $150,975,741. The consumption 
of mill cinder, scale, scrap, etc.. was 
2,168.092 tons, costing $6,651,055: flux- 
ing material, 11.499.685 tons, costing 
$11,184,378; coke, the chief fuel for 
smelting, 26.883.382 tons, costing $83,- 
499.448 ; charcoal. 29.083.978 bushels, 
costing $1.683.075 ; and coal, both an- 
thracite and bituminous. 99,251 tons, 
costing $254,007. The smelting fuels 
consumed cost $85,436,530. 

Of the total production of 23.269.731 
tons of pig-iron, 15,495.004 tons were 
for the use of the producers and 7.- 
774.747 tons for sale. The pis-iron prod- 
uct by grades for the year 1914 was as 
follows : Basic, 9.465,853 tons : Bes- 
semer and low phosphorus, 7,883.530 
tons; foundry, 4.325,100 tons; mallea- 
ble, 730.910 tons: forge or mill. 488.172 
tons ; white, mottled and miscellaneous, 



32,202 tons; direct castings, 14.. ",84 tons 
and ferro-alloys, 329,580 tons. 

STEEL WORKS AXD ROLLING MILLS 

The consumption of pig iron and ferro- 
alloys by the 436 establishments pro- 
ducing steel and hot-rolled iron and' 
steel manufactures as their chief prod- 
ucts amounted to 17,060.940 tons in 
1914, the cost of these materials being 
$248.393. 20S. The plants consumed ap- 
proximately 10.045.oo0 tons of scrap, of 
which amount 5,065,090 tons were pur- 
chased at a cost of $50,301,614, and 
5.579.422 tons were produced in the 
works where consumed. The consump- 
tion of iron ore amounted to 999.459 
tons, costing $4,252,087. In addition. 
6.440,742 tons of steel ingots, rails for 
rerolling and partly finished rolled 
products, such as blooms, billets, slabs, 
muck and scrap bar. sheet and tin- 
plate bars. etc.. produced in certain 
mills, were purchased bv others at a 
cost of $131. 967. 205. 

PRODUCTS 

The total products of the steel works 
and rolling mills for the year 1914 
were valued at $919,527,2 14. The rolled, 
forged and other classified iron and steel 
products aggregated 25,586,715 tons, 



216 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS KESOURCES 




TAKING ON A CARGO OF PIG IRON BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC LI 
NOTE HOW THE PIGS FLY TO THE MAGNET 



rained at $802,976,516, comprising 18.- 
526,342 tons of finished rolled products 
and forgings, valued at $624,754,421 : 
6,408,030 tons of partly finished rolled 

products— blooms, hillots. slahs. sheet 

hars. tin-plate bars, muck bar, a ml scrap 
bar— valued al $130,674,909, and <;."»•_>.- 
343 tons of unrolled steel in the form 
of ingots and castings, valued at $47,- 
547.136. 

The finished rolled products and fortr- 
ings produced during the year 1!'14 were 
classified as follows: Kails. 1.842.041 
tons, valued at $54,009,918; rerolled or 
renewed rails, <'>•">. (i'l tons, valued at 
$1,438,237; rail fastenings (splice hars. 
tie-plates, fish-plates, etc.), 348.947 
tons, valued at $11,526,956; structural 
shapes (not Including plates used for 
making girders), 2,083,440 tons, valued 
at $57,475,366; bars for reinforced eon 
crete, 269.966 tons, valued at $7,751.- 
549; merchant bars, 2,474, 677 tons, val- 
ued at $84,407,700; spike and chain rods. 
boll and nut rods, horseshoe hars. strips, 
etc., 536.575 tons, valued at $18,343,812; 
wire rods. 2.377,691 tons, valued at $61,- 
578.145; plates and sheets, 3,699.249 
tons, valued at $129,785,963; black 
plates, 1,011.938 tons, valued at $43. 
1 IT.oti ; hoops, ha nils 
603,940 tons, valued 
skelp. flue and pipe. 
valued at $52,443,303: 
plate, 50,302 tons, valued at $2,008,308; 
axles, roiled and forged, 89,418 tons, 
valued ai $3,311,202; armor plates, gun 
forgings, and ordnance, 38.669 tons. 
\alued at $19,947,893; car and locomo 
tive wheels, rolled or forged. 137,895 
tons, valued al 7.435.798; all other 
rolled products, 481,779 tons, valued 
at $29,689,872; and all other forged 
produi ts, ll 1,402 tons, valued at $19,- 
165,900. 

AORICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS 

The total products of the 772 estab 
lishments engaged in the manufacture 
of agricultural Implements during the 
year 1914 were valued at $168,120,632 

The various agricultural implements 
manufactured comprised .". ::i s.iTC, inl- 



and cotton ties. 

at $19,945,078; 

1,960.844 tons. 

nail and tack 



plements of cultivation, valued at $39,- 
632,903; 634.926 planters and seeders, 
valued at $12,268,156; 1,102,389 liar 
vesting implements, valued at $40,561, 
472: and 140.803 seed separators, val- 
ued at $13,986,184. All other products. 
including parts for all classes of agri 
cultural implements, were valued at $60, 
211.327. The amount received for re- 
pair work was $1, 400,590. 

WIttE 

The total products of wire drawing 
establishments in V.M4 were valued at 
$172,600,587, of which amount $166. 
999,888 represented the value of wire 
and manufactures of wire. $2,581,000 
represented the value of finished prod' 
nets other than wire and wire products 
and $3,019,699 represented the value 
of all other products, including scrap, 
copperas, etc. 

The total quantity of steel and iron 
wire drawn in 1!»14 was 2,465,383 tons. 
valued at $116,215,503, and included 
459.909 tons of plain wire, valued at 
$22,316,778; ::7M7s tons of coated 
wire, valued a I $15,949,531 : 12,886,634 
tons of wire nails and S] ikes, valued at 
$23,368,633; ::::.::::o tons of wire brads, 
tacks and staples, value. l at $1,324,948; 
343,693 tons of barbed wire, valued at 
$13,764,367 : 52,735 tons of wire rope 
and strand, valued at $7,973,537; 411.- 
460 tons of woven wire fence and poul- 
try netting, valued at $19,795,812; 22.- 
721 tons of other woven wire products, 
valued at $2,822,689; and 122.720 tons 
of other fabricated iron ami steel wire 
products, valued at $8,899,208. 

The total quantity of copper wire 

drawn was 135,437 Ions, valued at 
$42,928,550, and included 84.921 tons 
of hare wire, valued at $26,206,024; 
48.386 tons of insulated wire, valued at 
$15,709,244; ami 2,130 tons of woven 
a ml ot her fabricated copper wire prod 
nets, valued at $1,013,282. 

There were also produced 39.614.500 
pounds of hrass wile and wire products, 
valued at $6,366,342; 749,224 pounds 
of German-silver wire, valued at $238, 
078; .and wire of other metals and al 



MANUFACTURES 



217 



loys brciinze, zinc, nickel and nickel 
alloys, and copper clad steel to the val- 
ue of $1,251,415. 

TIN AND TERNE PLATE 

There were ."»1 establishments engaged 
in the tin and terne Hate industry in 

1014 whose OUtpilt Of Coated plates 

amounted to 2,039,566,144 pounds, val- 
ued at $66,270,345, comprising 1,901,- 

331,895 i nds of tin plate, valued at 

$60,258,024, and 138,234,249 pounds of 
terne plate (steel or iron plates or sheets 
coated with an alloy of tin and lead. 
known as terne mixture I, valued at $0.- 
012,321. The tin-plate product com- 
prised 1,855,892,526 pounds of coke 
plate, valued al $58,450,853. and 45.439,- 
369 pounds of charcoal plate (steel and 
iron i. valued at $1,807,171. The value 
of all other products was $2,072,617, 



making a total of $68,342,962 for the 
\ a lue of all products in 1914. 

CAST [RON PIPE 

The cast-iron pipe product of 1914 
comprised 1,092.208 ne1 ions, valued at 
$25,391,714, consisting of 880,556 tons 

Of u'iis and water pipe and fittings. val 
lied at $19,218,006, and 211,652 tons of 
soil and plumbers' pipe and fittings, 
valued at $6,173,708. The gas and 
water-pipe output was made up of 802. 
967 tons of bell and spigol pipe, valued 
at $16,228,587; 25.192 tons of flanged 
pipe, valued at $645,707; 12,011 tons 
of culvert pipe, valued at $246,527 : and 
40,386 tons of fittings, valued at $2. 
097,185. In addition, there were pro- 
duced 26,199 tons of castings other 
than pipe and fittings, valued at $741,- 
381, and products other than castings, 
valued at $1,441,678. 



TRANSPORTATION 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILROAD CARS 

During the year 1914 there were 
138,178 steam and electric cars, valued 
at $165,071,427, built in the United 
States. Of this number. 3,558 were 
steam-passenger cars, valued at .f -4 r. . - 
027. 083 and 131,799 were freight and 
other cars, valued at $110,002,456. The 
number of electric cars manufactured 
was 2.821. and their value was $10,- 
041.888. For more detailed information 
relative to the construction of railroad 
cars, locomotives, etc.. the reader is 
referred to the special chapter on "Rail- 
roads of the United States." 
CARRIAGES AND WAGONS AND MATERIALS 

The total value of the carriages and 
wagons and materials manufactured in 
1914 was $135,792,357. There were 
1 187.002 vehicles of all classes, valued 
at $72,283,989, including 558.402 car- 
riages, value, 1 at $34,193,518; 572,613 
wagons, valued at $36,533,152; 1.287 
public conveyances, valued at $325,269 ; 
and 54,700 sleighs and sleds, valued at 
$1,231,959. other products, parts, re- 
pairs, etc.. were valued at $63,508,459. 
There was a decrease of 25.1 per cent 
in the production of vehicles during 
1014 over 1909. due to the inroad of the 
automobile into the carriage and wagon 
industry. This has been greater with 
respect to pleasure vehicles than to 
those used for business purposes. 
SHIPBUILDING 

During the year 1!tl4 there were 1 .- 
145 establishments engaged in the ship 
building and boatbuilding industry, 
whose products — that is. construction 



and repair work done during the year. 
were valued at $88,682,071. The value 
of work done on new vessels of rive gross 
tons and over was $42,545,445, of which 
amount $36,295,758 represented the val- 
ue of work done on iron and steam ves- 
sels and $6,249,687 the value of work 
done on wooden vessels. The value of 
work done on boats of less than five 
gross tons was $3,788,689. The value of 
repairs made in 1914 was $32,835,212. 
All other products were valued at $9,- 
512.725. 

The total number of vessels of five 
gross tons and over launched during 
1014 was 1.113 with a gross tonnage of 
424.660. There were launched 126 iron 
and steel vessels with a gross tonnage of 
242.559; and 987 wooden vessels with 
a gross tonnage of 182.101. Classified 
according to power, there were launched 
140 steam vessels, gross tonnage 2"4. 
636; 427 motor-driven boats, gross ton- 
nage 13.220; -to sailing vessels, gross 
tonnage 2.224, and 506 unrigged vessels, 
gross tonnage 174.580. There were ::,- 
706 jiower boats of less than five gross 
tons launched during the year. 

MOTORCYCLES, BICYCLES ANT) PARTS 
The total value of the motorcycles. 
bicycles and parts manufactured during 
1014 was $25,486,942. There were man 
ufactured 02.70:; motorcycles, valued at 
$12,306,447, an increase in number of 
2."7.1 per cent over the year 1909. and 
398,899 bicycles, valued at $5,361,229. 

AUTOMOBILES 
A special chapter on "Automobiles" 
Is given as under Chapter XVIII. 



THE ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY, APPARATUS AND 
SUPPLIES 

There were 1,121 establishments en- 
gaged in the manufacture of electrical- 

machiiieiv apparatus, during the year 



191 I. whose products, for the year, were 
\alued at $359,412,676. 

The output of dynamos, including 
parts and supplies, in 1014 was valued 
at $23,233,437. This includes dynamo- 



21S 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



tors, motor generators, boosters, rotary 
converters, double-currenl generators, 
etc., 8.393 in Dumber, with an aggregate 
rapacity of 7S0.009 kilowatts and val 
ued at $5,367,895; 20S.548 small direct- 
currenl dynamos and automobile self- 
starters, valued at $5,933,273; 9,633 
direct current dynamos, including gen 
erators for direct connection to steam 
turbines, with an aggregate capacity of 
221,221 kilowatts and valued at $2,- 
967.467; 2.512 alternating current dy- 
namos, including generators for direct 
connection to steam turbines, with an 
aggregate capacity of 1,188.005 kilo 
watts and a value of $7,437,445. The 
transformers manufactured in 1914 ag 
gregated 115,843 in number, with •_'.- 
644.794 kilowatts capacity, and were 
valued al $13,120,065. There were no. 
iiT machines of less than 5U-kilowatt 
capacity, valued at $7,310,615; 1.857 



speed controlling devices, feeder poten 
tial regulators, reactances, voltage rc-_'u 
lators. and rectifying apparatus to the 
value of $9,936,343; light and power 
switchboards, panel hoards and cut-oul 
cabinets, valued at $8.989,11 1 : batter 
ies. storage and primaries, and parts and 
supplier. $23,402,455; lamps. $17,350. 
385; arc lamps, searchlights, projectors 
anil focusing lamps. $2,823,687 : tele 
phones, telephone switchboards, and 
parts and supplies. $22,815,640; tele- 
graph apparatus, including wireless. 
switchboards, ami parts and supplies. 
$2,248,375; electric beating apparatus, 
including air heaters, cooking devices. 
Hat irons, and welding apparatus. $4.- 
034.436; electric measuring instruments. 
$8,786,506; electrical therapeutic ap 
paratus, $2,653,098: insulated wires aim 
cables, $69,505,573; electric conduits, 
underground ami interior, $4,874,709 ; 




Edison dynamo of 1883 
THE FIRST CENTRAL POWER STATION IN THE UNITED STATES 



of from 50 to .".no kilowatt capacitv. 
valued al $2,625, 111: and 800 of 500 
kilowatts and over, valued at $3,178,036 

The output of motors, including parts 
and supplies, was valued at $44,176,235. 
This includes -llT.'.e.ej motors tor in 
ilii trial power and for railway use. with 
an aggregate capacity of 2.882.795 horse 
power, and a value of $32,256,149; 11. 
sso motors for automobiles, having an 
ite horse-power of 36,858 and 
valued al $1,351,442; motors for fans 
to the value of $4,835,850 and miscel- 
laneous motors valued at $1,190,564. 

Other products were: Rheostats, re 
sistances, controllers, motor-starting and 



magneto-ignition apparatus, spark pIul-s. 
coils, etc. $22,260,847; electric switches, 
signals and attachments. $6,393,551 : 
carbons for furnace, lighting, hrushes. 
battery, etc. $3,602,741 ; annunciators. 
$263,806; electric docks and time 
mechanisms, $410,774; and various 
other kinds of electric equipment, in 
eluding sockets, receptacles ami bases. 
some electric lighting fixtures, lightning 
arresters, fuses, circuit Strings, and an 
classified electric machinery, apparatus 
and supplies, $44,907,658. The last 
item includes electric locomotives, mine 
and railway, of which there were '.too. 

valued at $3,720,914. 



MANUFACTURES 



219 



THE LEATHER INDUSTRY 



There were tanned during the year 
1914. 138,547,692 hides and skins, as 
follows: L7.457.591 cattle hides, costing 
$148,751,002. 10.007.7!)." calf and kip 
skins, costing $33,117,713; 37,755,867 
goat and kid skins, costing $23,916,965; 
40,090,198 sheep and lamb skins, cost- 
ing $19,247,682, and 1,250,245 horse- 
hides. 1,095,360 kangaroo skins, 233,180 
eolt skins and a number of hog, pig, 
deer, buck, seal, dog. alligator, shark, 
elk. moose and other skins, costing 
$8,414,129. 

The leather products, valued at $348.- 
950. S72. were divided as follows : 18.- 
097.665 sides of sole leather, valued at 
$110,347,190; 973,591 belting butts, 
valued at $12,876,554; 2.943.720 sides 
of harness leather, valued at $21,745.- 
80S ; upholstery — automobile, furniture 
and carriage — leather to the value of 
$14,328 35s ; bookbinders' leather to the 
value of $1,302,073 : 8.245.904 sides of 
cattle side upper leather, valued at 
$32,939,139 ; 905.350 sides of horse 
leather, valued at $2.881,924 : glove 
leather to the value of $3,286,352; 
rough leather to the value of $4,511,251 : 
66,368,840 skins of upper leather, 
valued at $85,051,550 ; 7,698,452 skins 
of patent leather. valued at $15,- 
590.S12; 7.480.200 skins of fancy 
leather, valued at $8,775,908: 1.004.581 
sides of case, bag and strap leather, 
valued at $5,383,255; 1.94S.533 skins 
of chamois, valued at $925,492 ; and all 
other leather — lace, collar, saddlery, 
suspender, piano action leather, etc. — 
to the value of $21,249,110. 

LEATHER CLOVES AND MITTENS 

During the year 1914. there were 352 
establishments engaged in the leather 
glove and mitten industry with products 
valued at $21,014.10!). There were pro- 
duced 3,082,370 dozen pairs of gloves, 



mittens and gauntlets, valued at $20.- 
296,558, and other products to the value 
of $20,296,558. 

The production of men's gloves, mit- 
tens and gauntlets was 2,367,263 dozen 
pairs, valued at $15,334,605, of which 
1.571.04!) dozen pairs, value,] at $11,- 
280,801, were unlined : 594,880 dozen 
pairs, valued at $3,584,118, wen' lined; 
and 200,734 dozen pairs, valued at $403.- 
('.20. were part leather and part fabric. 
Of the 425.501 dozen pairs of women's 
and children's gloves, mittens and gaunt- 
lets, 325,530 dozen pairs, valued at $3.- 
190,701, were unlined. and 99.971 dozen 
pairs, valued at $760,409. were lined. 
Of the 289.612 dozen pairs of boys' 
gloves, mittens and gauntlets. 51.797 
dozen pairs, valued at $199,030 were un- 
lined. and 237,815 dozen pairs, valued 
at $799,153, were lined. 

FOOTWEAR 

The 1.355 establishments engaged in 
the manufacture of footwear, during 
1914. produced a total of 292,666.468 
pairs of footwear, valued at $501,707,937. 
The total output of boots and shoes 
amounted to 252.510.003 pairs, of which 
98,031,144 pairs were for men ; 22,895, 
719 pairs for boys and youths: 80,916.- 
239 pairs for women, and 48,322,395 
pairs for misses and children. There 
were produced 2,351.100 pairs of fiber 
shoes of all classes. The output of 
slippers, not including infants' slippers 
and slippers made from felt or other 
fiber, amounted to 17,733,689 pairs. Of 
this number. 3,000.972 pairs were for 
men, boys and youths and 14,066,717 
pairs were for women, misses and chil- 
dren. The output of infants' shoes and 
slippers was 15,476,763 pairs. The out- 
put of all other footwear, including ath 
letic. sporting, logging and mining shoes. 
sandals, and felt and other fiber slip 
pers. was 0,939.413 pairs. 



PAPER, PRINTING AND PUBLISHING 



PAPER AND WOOD PULP 

The production of wood pulp in 1914 
amounted to 2,894,650 tons. In addi- 
tion to the domestic production there 
were used 534.395 tons of imported 
pulp. Other materials used were as fol- 
lows : 371,340 tons of rags. 1,577,845 
tons of waste paper, 121. 230 tons of 
rope. jute, bagging, threads, etc., and 
309.345 tons of straw. 

The total value of the paper produced 
in 1914 was $294,355,875 and was di- 
vided as follows: 1,313,284 tons of 
news paper, valued at $52,942,774 : 7S6.- 
020 tons of plain book paper, valued at 
$58,496,626; 117.342 tons of coated 
book paper, valued at $11,605,584; 9.332 
tons of plate, lithograph, map. wood 
cut book paper, valued at $588,332: 21.- 
*J79 tons of book cover paper, valued at 



$2,809,377: 83,010 tons of cardboard. 
Bristol board, card middles, tickets, etc.. 
valued at $5,376,434; 247.72S tons of 
fine paper, valued at $34,054,918, In 
eluding 195,351 tons of writing paper, 
valued at $28,037,257: 8M.799 tons of 
wrapping paper, valued at $49,372,753 : 
1,288,527 tons of wood pulp, straw, 
news and hinders' board, and all other 
board, valued at $41,870,947; 121.598 
tons of tissue paper, valued at $11,535.- 
720; 14.157 tons of blotting paper, val 
tied at $1,457,897; 243,908 tons of build 
ing (roofing, asbestos and sheathing) 
paper, valued at $9 175.7::.".: 96,527 tons 
of hanging papers, valued at $4,488,910; 
and 130,459 tons of miscellaneous pa 
per. valued at $9,890,641. All 
products manufactured for sale were 
valued at $40,558,708 



220 



OIK COUNTRY a;\'1> ITS RESOURCES 



I'KI NI'INC am> publishing 
During the year 191 I there were 
31,612 establishments engaged in print- 
ing and publishing, of which number 
U'.ll."i were engaged chiefly in the print 
lug and publishing of books and pamph- 
lets, or in job printing, 180 in the 
printing and publishing of music and 
1!)..'!17 in the printing and publishing 
of newspapers and periodicals. 

The total value <>f products for 1914, 
of establishments printing and publish- 
ing newspapers and periodicals, was 
$495,905,984. The revenues of the news 
paper establishments comprised news- 
paper subscriptions and sales. $99,541,- 
860; newspaper advertising, $184,047,- 
106; subscriptions and sales of periodi- 
cals other than newspapers, $64,035,- 
230; and advertising in such periodicals, 
$71,906,976. 

The value of products of establish 
ments engaged chiefly in book and job 
work of all kinds aggregated $307,330,- 
861. The total receipts for job print 
ing, for the entire printing and pub 



lishing industry, were $249,730,932; for 
bonks and pamphlets, $87,316,348; for 
bookbinding and blank bonks. $15,097, 
109; for electrotyping, engraving, litho- 
graphing, etc., $9,698,641; for machine 
composition for others. $5,682,098; for 
read} prints (patent insides and oul 
sides). $1,965,210; and for all other 
products, $13,860,525. The receipts from 
music printing and publishing for the 
entire industry were $7,626,076. 
During the year 1914 there w 
74.~> newspapers and periodicals pub 
lished. There were 2,580 daily news 
papers with an aggregate circulation of 
28,436,030; 570 Sunday papers, with a 
circulation of 16,445,820; sj triweeklj 
newspapers, with a circulation of 549.- 
4:».i ; 583 semiweekly newspapers, with 
a circulation of 2.483,629; 15,166 week 
Iy newspapers, with a circulation of 50, 
454,738; _.nJh monthly publications, 
with a circulation of 79,190,838; 500 
quarterly publications, with a circula 
thm of 18.852,401 : and 142 other pub 
lications, with a circulation ol 8,946,567. 



CHEMICAL AND ALLIED PRODUCTS 



CHEMICALS 

The value of the chemical products 
produced in 1!»14 was as follows: Acids, 
$30,001,364 : alums. $3,467, 969 ; bleach- 
ing materials. ?4,964,403 ; cyanides, .?:;.- 
398,674; plastics. $13,895,784; sodas, 
$22,616,696; sodium products, $8,280,- 
572; compressed or liquefied gases, $8,- 
097,720; chemicals produced with the 
aid of electricity, $29,661,649; potash 
and potassium salts. $4,094,927; coal- 
tar products, $8,839,506; fine chemicals 
— that is. chemicals sold in the trade as 
chemically pure, such as ether, chloro- 
form, etc. $10,316,519, and general 
chemical products. -S 1 7 . 7 ! m ', . *_' 7 1 . 

In addition to the allied products 
which an' treated below in some detail. 

there wepe produced essential oils to the 

value of $2,565,361; refined petroleum 

to the value of $396,361,405 and prod- 
ucts of wood distillation to the value of 
$10,236,332. 

DYEST1 lis ami EXTRACTS 

The total products of the dyestuff and 
ei rad Industry in 1914 \\ ere valued 
at $21,341,122 and Included dyestuffs 
valued at $7,118,528, tanning materials 
valued at $7,840,057, mordants, assis- 
tants, and sizes valued at $5,044,225, 
ami other products to the value of si.. 
::::s.::io. 

EXPLOSIVES 

The total production of explosives, 
excluding exports, in tin' United states 
during 1915 was 460.900,796 pounds, as 
follows: Black blasting powder, r.'T.- 
722,300 pounds; "high" explosives, 235,- 
828,587 pound-;: and permissible ex- 
plo I v es, 27,3 19 909 pounds. 



FEBT1LIZERS 

The output of fertilizers in 1914 ag- 
gregated 8,414,959 net tons, valued at 
$152,815,786, consisting of 4,488,565 
tons of complete fertilizers, valued at 
$97,046,825; 1,116,739 tons of ammoni 
ated fertilizers, valued at $24,344,273 : 
1,760,290 tons of superphosphates, acid 
phosphates. and concentrated phos- 
phates, valued at $16,145,659; ami 1. 
049,365 tons of other fertilizers, valued 
at $15,279,031. In addition, then' were 
manufactured for sale other products to 
the vain.' of $15,572,619, Including oil. 
glue, grease, hone black, sulphuric acid, 
chemicals, etc. 

TAINTS AMD VARNISHES 

The principal materials used by the 
855 establishments engaged in the manu 
facture of paints and varnishes in L914 
were as follows: 149,968 tons (2,000 
pounds each) of pig lead, costing $11, 
424,544; 887,273 gallons of grain al- 
cohol, costing $360,737; 919.581 gallons 

of w l alcohol, costing $387,539; 24, 

025,502 gallons of lins 1 oil. costing 

$11,843,236; and 48.113,516 pounds of 
gum. costing 4.r,r.-_ > .:»7-_' . 

The total vali i' the products from 

these materials was $149,049,820 and In- 
cluded colors or pigments, valued at 
$17,407,955; oil paints, valued at $70, 
582,461 : water paints and kalsomine, 
valued at $2,202,281 : varnishes and 
japans, valued ai $36,061,203; tillers. 
Including putty, valued at $3,239,174; 
bleached shellac valued at $1,806,802; 
and other products valued at si7. 
749,94 l- 

The production of white lead was 
247,971,503 pounds, of which 71,643,812 



MANUFACTURES 



:ji 



pounds, valued at $3,697,702, was mar 
keted dry, and 199,726,280 pounds was 
made into and marketed in the form of 
paint. The total production of lead 
was 61,335.290 pounds, of which 58, 
642,588 pounds, valued at $3,281,716, 
was sold as lead oxides. 

TURPENTINE AXD ROSIN 

The total output of the 1,392 tur- 
pentine distilleries in operation in 1914 
was valued at $20,968,684 and consisted 
of 26,980,981 gallons of spirits of tur- 
pentine, valued at $10,510,407; 2.885,- 
077 barrels of rosin, valued at $10,332,- 
700; and dross, valued at $125,577. 

SOAP 

The products of the 51.°. establish- 
ments engaged in the manufacture of 



soap during 1914 were valued at $135, 
340,499. The soap products were valued 
at $107,030,620 and other products, in 
eluding glycerine, at $29,142,533. The 
production of hard soaps was 2,064, 
228,000 pounds, valued at $104,500,542 
and comprised 938,447,000 pounds of 
tallow soap, 42.524,000 pounds of olein 
soap, 1 11. or,:;, ooo pounds of foot soap, 
169,926,000 pounds of toilet soap. 367,- 
744,000 pounds of powdered soap, !»7. 
74(1. ooo pounds of soap chips, and 336,- 
77s. ooo pounds of other kinds of hard 
soap. The production of soft soap was 
57,002,000 pounds, valued at $1,697,424. 
In addition, there were special soap 
articles, such as soaps for technical 
purposes, and liquid soap, to the value 
of $832,654. 



MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES 



GLASS 

During the year 1914 there were 247 
establishments engaged in the manufac- 
ture of glass, the products Of which were 

valued at $122,964,792. The value of 
building glass produced was $36,794,869. 
as follows : 400,998,893 square feet of 
window glass, valued at $17,466,756 : 
43,040,079 square feet of obscured glass, 
including cathedral and skylight glass. 
valued at $2,417,253; 60,515,008 square 
feet of plate glass, valued at $14,799,646 : 
15.6SS.844 square feet of wire glass. 
valued at $1,590,934; and all other 
building glass, to the value of $520,280. 
The pressed and blown glass produced 
was valued at .$30,130,077 : bottles, jars, 
etc., $51,425,022; and all other prod- 
ucts, $4,614,824. 

THE GAS IXDCSTRY 

The consumption of gas-making fuels 
by the 1.284 gas companies in 1914 com- 
prised 0.110.072 tons of coal, costing 
$20,872,517; 710.019,357 gallons of oil. 
costing $24,934,184: 964.851 tons of 
coke, costing $4,706,602; and 31.749.491 
pounds of calcium carbide, costing $778.- 
037. There was also purchased by the 
gas companies 28,351.074.000 cubic feet 
of gas, at a cost of $8,883,016, a por- 
tion of which was enriched and sold, 
and the remainder sold as purchased. 

The gas products comprise 203.- 
730,191.000 cubic feet of gas. val- 
ued at $175,065,930, consisting of 
10.509.940,000 cubic feet of straight 
coal gas. valued at $10,726,514; 90,017,- 
725,000 cubic feet of carbureted water 
gas. valued at $74. 510.534 ; 80.281.- 
339,000 cubic feet of mixed coal and 
water gas. valued at $72,012,021; 16.- 
601,805,000 cubic feet of oil gas, valued 
at $15,044,509; 137,964.000 cubic feet 
of acetylene, valued at $2,511,634; and 
181.412.ooit cubic feet of other gas, 
chiefly if not entirely gasoline gas, val- 
ued at $254,718. In addition, the gas 
plants produced for sale 114.091,753 
bushels of coke, valued at $8,719,910; 



125,938.607 gallons of tar. valued at 
$3,252,756; and ammonia liquors, am 
uionium sulphate, and hydrocarbons, 
valued at $1,405,540. They also sold 
"other products" — consisting largely of 
gas purchased for sale — to the value of 
$20,815,871. Iteeeipts from rents and 
sales of lamps and appliances aggre- 
gated $10,977,774. 

ARTIFICIAL ICE 

The total cost of ammonia used in 
the manufacture of ice in 191 I was $1,- 
529,775. There were 5,405,917 pounds 
of anhydrous ammonia used, costing $1.- 
422.190 and 1,927.664 pounds of aqua 
ammonia, costing $107,579. 

The total value of all products for 
the year was $60,352,236. There were 
produced 17,086,400 tons of can ice. 
valued at $52,110,457. and 1,179.092 
tons of plate ice. valued at $3,107,839. 
Other products were valued at $5,- 
127,940. 

RUBBER GOODS 

The products of the .':.".l establish 
ments engaged in the manufacture of 
rubber goods during the vear 1014 were 
valued at $300,251,827. Tin- production 
of rubber tires was valued at $146,411,- 
692 and formed 4vs per cent of the 
total value of all kinds of rubber manu- 
factured. There were manufactured 
8,020,815 automobile tires or casings, 
valued at $105,671,223; 7,906,993 auto 
mobile inner tubes, valued at $20,098, 
936; solid tires for motor and other 
vehicles to the value of $13,735,681 : 
and 3,728,138 motorcycle, bicycle ami 
aeroplane tires, valued at $6,905,852. 

There were manufactured during the 
year 4.024.486 pairs of boots, valued 
a1 $12,647,934, and 57.211.728 pairs of 
shoos, valued at $37,858,222. The value 
of rubber clothing produced was so, : 396,- 
810; of garden, fire, and other hose. 
$16,853,693; of rubber belting, $7,989. 
405; of rubber packing, $3,507,651; of 
druggists' and stationers' sundri 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



527,755; Mn<] of miscellaneous manu- 
factures of rubber, $:;;i.'tS:; ? yt;:i. 

STEAM LAUNDRIES 

In the year 1914 there were 6,097 
steam laundries in the United States. 
with 149,100 persons engaged in the 
industry. The capital invested was 
$98,055,001. The cost of materials was 
$26,919,200 and of services, $71,764,059. 
The amount received for work done, 
which is regarded as the product of the 
industry, was $142,503,253. 

GLUCOSE AND STARCH 

The principal materials used in the 
manufacture of glucose and starch are 
corn, potatoes and wheat flour, the con- 
sumption of these materials in 1914 
being 2,488,792,405 pounds, 169,878.784 
pounds, and 14,198,049 pounds, respec 
tively. The total value of the manu- 
factured products was $51,676,653. The 
principal products were 620.764,347 
pounds of starch, valued at $15,783,- 
781; 847,180.968 pounds of glucose, in- 
eluding all sirups, valued at $18,541, 
429; 174,368,818 pounds of grape 
sugar, valued at $3,765,515; 8.861,579 
gallons of corn oil, valued at $3,693,163; 
and 143,001,065 pounds of corn oil cake 
ami meal, valued at $] 829,305. Stock 
feed was valued a* $6,690,412, and all 
other products at $1,373,048. 

PIANOS AND ORGANS AND MATERIALS 

The total value of the pianos, organs 



and materials manufactured in 1!»14 was 
$68,769,476. The number of pianos 
manufactured was 325.893, valued at 
$56,266,362. There were 2'2~ , oof, up 
rijjht pianos without player attach- 
ments, valued at $31,385,881 : K7.808 
upright pianos for (or with) player 
attachments, valued at $20,265,514; 
9,698 grand pianos without player at 
tachments, valued at $4,201,302; and 
831 grand pianos for (or with) player 
attachments, valued at $413,665. There 
were 6,493 separate player attachments 
manufactured with a value of $s.~>4.774. 
The number of organs manufactured 
was 42,806, valued at $6,378,312. There 
were 2,273 pipe organs, valued at $4,- 

660.301, and 40,533 r 1 organs, valued 

at $1,718,011. The value of perforated 
music rolls manufactured was $833,357 ; 
piano parts, materials and supplies, 
•S-.7'.<"J. , .»4l; ; and all other products, 
$1,643,729. 

PHONOGRAPHS, GRAPHOPHONES \M> 
TALKING MACHINES 

The number of phonographs, grapho- 
phones ami talking machines, including 
office dictating instruments. manufac- 
tured during 1914, amounted to 515,154 
machines, with a value of $15,290,491 
The 27,221,290 records and blanks pro- 
duced were valued at $11,111,418. Parts. 
materials ami supplies were valued at 
$356,935 and other products at $357,072. 




CHAPTER XVIII. 
THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 



NOTHING in modern invention, 
in the progress of labor-saving 
devices, in the application of 
invention to every-day life, can show 
a parallel with the remarkable de- 
velopment of the automobile. 

Everyone whose memory goes 
back ten or fifteen years can see to 
some extent the effects of this de- 
velopment, but only figures can give 
an adequate idea of the wonderful 
growth of the industry from nothing 
to its present huge proportions. 

In 1914 there were three hundred 
establishments devoted to the manu- 
facture of automobiles exclusively, 
producing 573.114 cars. A total of 
91,997 people were employed, of 
which GO were firm members or pro- 
prietors, 12,630 salaried employees, 
and 79,307 wage earners. The capi- 
tal employed in the industry aggre- 
gated $312,N76,000, and a total of 
$84,901,000 was disbursed in pay- 
ment for services, $66,935,000 for 
wages, and the balance. $17,966,000, 
for salaries. 

Materials to the value of $292,- 
598,000 were purchased for the man- 
ufacture of automobiles. The manu- 
facturing process added $210,632,000 
to this, giving a value of automo- 
biles made in 1914 as $503,230,000. 

These figures, of course, represent 
only a part of the automobile in- 
dustry, and, indeed, so rapid is its 
progress that 1916 figures, if they 
were obtainable, would show a large 
increase over those given. 

The manufacture of automobile 
bodies and parts is in itself an 
enormous industry, sprung, almost 



overnight, with the demand for more 
automobile members than the mak- 
ers of the machine themselves could 
supply. 

In addition, in 1914, 33 establish- 
ments primarily engaged in other 
lines of manufacture, produced auto- 
mobiles to the value of $6,636,920, 
and 434 establishments of this char- 
acter manufactured automobile bod- 
ies and parts to the value of $10,- 
515,070. 

Nine hundred and seventy-one es- 
tablishments, employing a total of 
53,954 people, made automobile parts 
and bodies in 1914. Seven hundred 
were firm members or proprietors, 
5,469 salaried employees, and 47,785 
wage earners. Capital was invested 
in the industry to the amount of $91.- 
854,000, and $54,552,000 was paid out 
for services rendered. $19,560,000 for 
salaries, and $34,992,000 for wages. 
Materials valued at $63,610,000 were 
worked into products valued at $129,- 
601,000, the process thus adding $65,- 
991,000 to the worth of the raw ma- 
terial. 

At the 1909 census. 315 establish- 
ments engaged in the manufacture 
of automobiles either as a primary 
or as a subsidiary product ; and 
their output was 127.2S7 machines, 
valued at $165,099,404. During the 
five years, 1909-1914. there lias been 
an increase of 350.3 per cent in the 
number of automobiles manufac- 
tured, and of lsl.7 per cent in their 
total value. 

Of the automobiles manufactured 
during 1914, those operated by gaso- 
line or steam power numbered 568,- 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



•_'•_' t 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



399, and those operated by electri- 
city, 4,71. r >, as compared with 123,- 
452 operated by gasoline or steam, 
and 3,835 by electric power, manu- 
factured in 1909. The increase dur- 
ing the live years in the number of 
gasoline and steam machines manu- 
factured is thus 360.4 per cent, and 
in the number of electrics, 22.9%. 

Touring cars formed the principal 
type manufactured during both cen- 
sus years. In 1914 the output of 
this class of machines was 454,876, 
valued at $351,585,518, compared 
with 76,189, valued at $113,510,575 
in 1000. Of the total products for 
1914. the number designed for pleas- 
ure or family use was 544,255, com- 
pared with 119,190 in 1909. For bus- 
iness purposes and for use as public 
cabs, omnibuses, ambulances, patrol 



wagons, fire-fighting machines, and 

for ether business purposes, 21.111 
machines were manufactured in 
1914, compared with 4,262 in 1909. 
The output Of delivery wagons and 
trucks was 22,753 in 1914, compared 
with 2.771 iu 1909. 

IIORSE-I'OWKH 

The production of vehicles of less 
than 10 horse-power amounted to 
only 391 in 1014: of from 10 to 10 
horse-power, to 45.11G; of from 20 
to 29 horse-power, to 346,399; of 
from 30 to 49 horse-power, to 163,- 
46S; and of 50 horse-power or more. 
to 13,025. It is interesting to note 
that 104.0s. - ; horse-power is devel- 
oped in the automobile manufactur- 
ing plants and C.s.Tin in the plants 
making bodies and parts. 







A GLORIOUS VIEW FROM THE PIKES PEAK AUTO HIGHWAY 




THE OLD AND THE NEW TRANSPORTATION 



226 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



COMPARISOiN KM19-14 

The following table, listing the 
totals of automobile manufacturers 

and makers of bodies and parts, 
shows in a graphic way the growth 
of the industry. 

It is not. however, only in the 
statistics of the industry that its 
effects are to be shown. An auto- 



State of New York in 190] and 
amounted to only $954. other States 
gradually took up the registration of 
motor vehicles, chauffeurs, and oper- 
ators, but for several years revenue 
from these sources was negligible. 
The total amount collected by the 
various States in 1905 amounted to 
only $62,500. The increase in sub- 



TABLE SHOWING GROWTH OF THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 



Number of establishments 

Machines manufactured 

Persons engaged in manufacture: 

Proprietors and firm members 

salaried employees 

Wage earners 

Primary horsepower 

( lapital 

Sen ices 

Salaries 

Wages 

Materials 

Value Of products 

Value added by manufacture (value of prod 
nets less cost of materials') 



$173 

58 

9 

48 

131 

249 



127 
85 

9, 

7. r > 
75 
,837 
173 
479 
694 
646 
201' 



743 
2S7 
359 
105 
233 
721 
:,.-,( I 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 



117,556.000 



1,271 
573,11 l 

145,951 

760 

18,099 

127.092 
173,684 

S1O7.730.00O 

139,453,000 
37,526,000 

101,927.000 
356,208,000 

ti32.s31.000 

276,623,000 




mobile is not like a pair of shoes, 
bought, used up and discarded in a 
year f<> make room for a new pair. 
The automobile is bought and kept 
for several seasons, so thai only a 
pari of the new output is absorbed 

by the experienced owner. The re- 
sult is that the automobile wealth — 
or money invested in machines which 
3 et have a tangible and tremendous 
value — is almost beyond computa- 
tion. 

NUMBER OF CABS 

Only the registration of automo- 
biles I in the absence of a census I 

can give any adequate idea of how 
many machines are actually in use. 

During the past ten years the 
Stale registration of motor ears, in- 
cluding commercial vehicles, has in- 
Creased 5,000 per cent, or from a boot 
18,000 in 1906, to 2, 1 15,664 in 1915. 

The lirst revenue derived by tin- 
State governments from automobile 
registration was collected in the 



sequent years has been almost phe- 
nomenal, and during 1915 the total 
gross revenues derived from the reg- 
istration of motor vehicles and the 
licensing of operators, chauffeurs, 
dealers, etc.. amounted to $18,245,- 
7i::. 

Motor vehicles registered under 
the general designation of automo- 
biles, motor trucks, and commercial 
vehicles in continental United States 
during 1915 amounted to 2,445,664. 
The road mileage of the United 
states outside id' incorporated towns 
and cities is approximately 2,375,000 
miles. There is. therefore, an aver- 
age of slightly more than one car 
for each mile of rural public road. 
The distribution among the several 
Slates, however, is far from uni- 
form. There is only one motor for 
every si\ miles of road in Nevada, 
while in New Jersey there are nearly 
six motor cars per mile of road. 
With an average of one motor car 
for every 11 persons, in the United 




Good Roads and Auto Buses Add Greatly to Our Pleasures 

The Modern Land Houseboat Is Like a Gipsy Caravan 

A Modern "Jitney" Bus 

SOME COLLECTIVE MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION 



228 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



States, in [owa there is one for ev 
ery 16 persons, bul only one for 
every 200 persons in Alabama. 

u ioMnmu: a< i im.\ i s 

That more just laws, an apprecia- 
tion of the other fellow's rights and 
a standard of good driving, set by 
familiarity and public opinion, are 
having their effect upon "Safety 
First" is unquesl ionable. 

From 1909 to 1914 the number of 
automobiles increased more than 
twice as rapidly as the number of 



area in L914; and the increase from 
1913 to 1914, for the registration 
area as constituted in 1913, then 
containing •;."> per cent of the popu- 
lation of the country, was from 
2,488 to 2,795. 

Thus a live-year increase of 77o 
per cent in number of machines has 
been accompanied by an increase of 
315 per cent in automobile fatalities: 
and a one-year increase of .'I s per 
cent in Dumber of machines has been 
accompanied by an increase of 12 
per cent in fatalities. 




WRECKING TRUCK FOR ENGINEER 
CORPS SERVICE 



AUTOMOBILE GENERAL REPAIR SHOP 
FOR ENGINEERING CORPS SERVICE 



fatalities caused by them. Accord- 
ing to figures of the National Auto 
mobile Chamber of Commerce, the 
number of automobiles in use in the 
United States was in 1904 approxi- 
mately 200,000; by the close of 1913 
it had risen to 1,270,000; at the end 
of 191 I. to 1,750,000. 

The number of deaths due to auto 
mobile accidents, and injuries, in- 
creased from 632 in the death-regis- 
tration area in 1909 (containing 56 

pel' cent of the population of (lie 
I nitcd States) to 2,623 in the same 



A more reliable comparison can 
be made between the increase in 
number of automobiles and the in- 
crease in the rate per 100,000 popu- 
lation for deaths caused by them. 
On this basis, a five-year increase of 
7T.*> per cent in number of machines 
has been aeci nnpa nied by an increase 
of 258 per cent in the death rate re- 
sulting from automobile fatalities. 
Similarly, a one-year increase of 
38' , in number of automobiles has 
taken place along with an increase 
of only l(j' c in the death rate. 




Views on the Columbia River Highway 
WHAT THE ENGINEER HAS DONE FOR THE AUTOMOBILIST 



CHAPTER XIX. 



THE RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN 

COMMERCE 

By SECRETARY OF COMMERCE WILLIAM C. REDFIELD 



FOREIGN trade has in less than 
three years become one of the 
most important factors in the 
industrial life of our nation. The 
change has been so sudden that its 
significance is not fully understood 
even by all those directly inter- 
ested. It is not merely that we 
have become, almost over night, the 
world's greatest trading nation. For 
a great many years we have ranked 
near the top, especially in exports. 
It is rather that our whole attitude 
toward foreign markets has changed. 
Our attitude now is one of enthu- 
siasm, where formerly we were 
indifferent or only casually inter- 
ested. 

Once upon a time our foreign 
trading consisted of selling abroad 
our raw agricultural and mineral 
products and buying in turn such 
manufactured products as we need- 
ed. This sort of commerce can be 
carried on with little effort. As a 
matter of fact it never required 
much effort on our part and it never 
brought us in very close contact 
with the problems of world trade. 
We did not have an international 
point of view. 

It was many years before Amer- 
ican manufacturers found them- 
selves in a position to export their 
products. From the start the home 
market was a rich one and one with 
which we kept pace only with diffi- 
culty. The first foreign shipments 
of any consecpience were largely the 
result of "hard times" at home, 
which in the past have been almost 



periodical with us. The shipments 
abroad were an effort to keep the 
wheels in motion while the demand 
at home was slack. Considerable 
temporary success attended this de- 
parture, although the practice of 
supplying customers with products 
one year and disappointing them the 
next is not one that makes for cor- 
dial trade relations. Experience in 
foreign trade methods was gained, 
however, in this way and more than 
one manufacturer was led to estab- 
lish permanent export departments. 
.Some put their export business on a 
sound basis, while others began a 
sort of permanent "dumping" busi- 
ness abroad aimed to reduce over- 
head charges per unit on all goods 
manufactured. In the latter case 
the American consumer, however, 
derived no benefit from the in- 
creased efficiency resulting from the 
nearer approach to maximum capa- 
city output, and the manufacturers 
themselves felt no real enthusiasm 
for foreign trade. It was not the 
proper way to win the place in 
world trade to which we are en- 
titled by reason of our unparalleled 
resources, our capacity for indus- 
trial organization, and our intelli- 
gent and industrious workmen. 

That the development of Amer- 
ican commerce may be easily traced, 
a table is inserted here which shows 
the total exports and imports for 
a long period of years, and also the 
traoe of our principal commercial 
rivals, the United Kingdom, Ger- 
many and France. 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



232 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



IMPORTS AND EXPORTS AND TOTAL FOREIGN TRADE OF THE UNITED 

STATES, THE UNITED KINGDOM, GERMANY, AND FRANCE FROM 

1870 TO LATEST AVAILABLE YEAH 





United States 


United Kingdom 


Year ' 






Total ex- 






Total ex- 




Import • 


Export - 


- and 


N( i 


Domesl ic 


ports and 








imports 


imports 


exports 


imports 




i.ooo dollars 


1,000 dollar: 


.000 dollars 




1,000 dollars 


1,000 dollazs 


1870. . . 


435,958 


392,772 


828,730 


1,259,270 


071 285 


2,230 555 


1S71 . . . 


520,224 


442,820 


963,04 i 


1,316,417 


1,085,551 


2,401,968 


1872. 


626,595 


4 44.17- 


1,070,773 


t, 442,250 


1.2 1. 


2,689,325 


1873. . 


642,136 


522,480 


i 101.010 


1,535,123 


1.24 1.700 


2.770 883 


L874 


507. 106 


586,283 


1,153,689 


1,518,304 


1,165 sin 


2,684,113 


1875. . 


533,005 


513,443 


I.O10. lis 


i ,536 si i 


1 087,497 


2,624,308 


1876 . . . 


460.7-11 


540,385 


1. OOi.120 


1,552,501 


070.410 


2 528,91 1 


1S77. . . 


451,323 


002.4 7.". 


1,053,798 


i 659,316 


967,913 


2.027.220 


1878. . . 


437.052 


694 


1,131,918 


1,538, 176 


938,500 


2, 170.070 


1879. . 


445,778 


710,439 


1.17.0.217 


1,487,884 


032.000 


2.410.074 


1 SSI , 


667,955 


835,639 


1,503,594 


1,692.939 


1,085,521 


2,778, 160 


1881 


642,665 


002.377 


15,042 


1,625,227 


1,138,873 


2,764, 100 


1 882 


724,640 


77.0. 542 


1,47 


1.002.00.-, 


1,175 099 


2,867,794 


1883 


723,181 


823,839 


,547,020 


1,758,043 


1,161 


2,925,025 


1884 


667,698 


740,514 


1,408,212 


1,591,720 


1.134,016 


2,725,736 


1 885 


577,527 


7 12.100 


,319 717 


1.. ".21.3 12 


1 037,124 


2.55s. 136 


1886 


635,436 


679,525 


1,31 1,96] 


1,428,945 


1.03.",. 220 


2, 101 171 


1 387 


692,320 


716,183 


i 108,503 


1. 173.001 


1.070.0 1 1 


2.553,905 


1888 


723,957 


695,955 


1. 1 10.012 


1.7.74.700 


1.141.30.-, 


2 716,131 


1889. 


745,132 


7 12.101 


1. 187,533 


1.77.0. 71 I 


1.21 1,442 


2,968,156 


1890 


789,310 


85 7 


1,647,139 


1.732.331 


1,282,472 


3,014.803 


1891 . . 


844,916 


884,481 


59,397 


1. SI 7. 13 


1 203,170 


3.021.113 


1892. . . 


827,403 


1,030,278 


857,681 


L.748 s; 


1,105,749 


2.854.024 


1893. 


SCO. 10 1 


847,665 


1,714,066 


1,685 


1,062,161 


2,745,043 


1894 


6£ 


S02.1 !1 


1,547,136 


1,706,02 


1.07.1.10 1 


2,757 21 1 


1895. 


7-31,971 


807,53 


1,539,508 


1.737.27D 


1,100 15 


2 837,723 


1896. 


779,725 


882,607 


1,662,332 


1,876,402 


1,168.669 


3,045,071 


1897 


764,730 


1.1 >.-.o. 001 


1. SI 7..72 1 


1,903,165 


1.130 830 


3,042.995 


1898 


616,050 


1,231,482 


17.532 


1,994,730 


L, 135,64 ! 


3,130,373 


1899 


697,149 


1.227.02:! 


1,924,172 


2,043,897 


; 287.151 


3,331.048 


1900. . 


849,941 


1,394,483 


2,244,4 ! 


2.23S.07! 


1.417,086 


3.655,157 


1001 . 


823,172 


1.1^. 


1,310,937 


2,210,112 


'.302.720 


3,572,841 


1902 


903,321 


1,381,719 


2,285 040 


-1 L28 


1,379,283 


3.030.411 


1903 


1,025,719 


1,420,1 12 


2, 1 15 801 


01 985 


Ml. -,.170 


3.717.101 


1904 


991 ,08 ! 


1.460,827 


2 151,915 


2.330.103 


i. 1034 10 


.. 802.903 


1905 


1,1 17,513 


1,51 ; 


2.030.07.-, 


2,346,821 


1,605,052 


3,951,873 


L906 


1 ,226.562 


1,743,865 


70 127 


1 544.138 


1.S27.737 


1,371,875 


1907. 


1,434 1 


1,880,85] 


3,31 


,69 


2,073.300 


4,768,688 


1908 


1,194 34 


i ,860,773 


3,055,1 15 


2, 198,1 I" 


1. S37,. 170 


1,333.295 


1909 


I 31 1,920 


1,663,011 


.'.07 1.03 1 


!,59 


i ,840,415 


4.430.012 


1910 




i 744,985 


01,932 


2,79* 


2,094,467 


1,890.252 


Kill 


1.527.22C 


I 049.320 


. 6,546 


809,909 


2,209,972 


5.019 881 


1912 


1,65 


2.204 


i7,587 


.; 080 


2. 371. U7.; 


5, 15 1 ,095 


1913 


I.M 


! 165,884 


1.278 


3. 207. sim 


2,556, 106 


5,763,906 


1914 


i ,89 


2 364,579 




2,925 550 


2.000.10.-, 


5,021.655 


1915. 


1 ,674,170 


s 589 


12.759 


3,674.009 


1,87 1 ,886 


5,545 895 


1916 






' " 13 

















'Figures for the United Stati - are for the fiscal years ended June 30; for the other 

itrios they are for the calendar years. 
i ri aeral imports. 



DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 



IMPORTS AND EXPORTS AND TOTAL FOREIGN TRADE OF THE CNITED 

STATES, THE UNITED KINGDOM, GERMANY, AND FRANCE PROM 

1870 TO LATEST AVAILABLE YEAR 





( lermany 3 


Fra : i 


Year 






Total ex- 






Total ex- 




Imports 


Exports 


ports and 
imports 


Imports 


Exports 


ports and 
imports 




1,000 dollars 


1,000 dollars 


1,000 dollars 


1.000 dollar 


1,000 dollar; 


.000 dollars 


1870 








553,400 


540.800 


1,094,200 


1871 








688.400 


7)7)1 400 


1. 242^800 


1S72 


775,128 


551,618 


1,316,746 


689.100 


720.000 


1.4 15! 100 


1873 


893,176 


542,085 


1,435,261 


686.101! 


730.900 


1.417.000 


1874 


856,662 


557.491 


1,414,153 


677,000 


714,300 


1,391.300 


1875. . . . 


839.590 


593.052 


1,432.042 


682,600 


747.400 


1,430,000 


1S76. . . . 


903. '177 


605.886 


1.509,863 


709.800 


690,100 


1,459.900 


1877 


896.072 


656,982 


1,553 


708,300 


663,200 


1.371.500 


1878 


834. 487 


686.671 


1,521,158 


806,000 


013.700 


1,419.700 


1879 


890. 618 


660.352 


1.7)7)6.970 


886,900 


623,600 


1.7,10.500 


1880. . . . 


670.'.i!7. 


688,500 


1,359,445 


971.400 


669.300 


1.040.700 


1881. . . 


705,013 


707.07s 


1,412,991 


938,600 


687,400 


1.026.000 


1 SSL' ... 


744.7).")-' 


758,817 


1,503,369 


930,600 


689,900 


i. 020. .500 


1883 


776.476 


778,257 


1,554,733 


.127.200 


666.200 


i ,593,400 


1884 


775,904 


762.432 


1,538 


838,300 


023.900 


102.200 


1885. . . . 


699,067 


680.551 


1,379,618 


789,100 


596,000 


1,385,100 


1886 


684.765 


710,186 


1,394,951 


s 12.200 


627,000 


1,439,200 


1887. . . . 


740.511 


745 896 


1,486,407 


777.000 


'120.600 


1,403.600 


1888. . . . 


778,434 


762,444 


1,540,878 


792,700 


020.600 


1.419,300 


1889. . . 


949,520 


753.222 


1,702,742 


833,200 


714,900 


1.548.100 


1890. . . . 


990,023 


791.717 


1,781,740 


856,300 


724.400 


1,580,700 


1891 


987,890 


755.771 


1.743.661 


920.200 


689.000 


1,609,200 


L892. 


956.417, 


703.07 s 


1.659.49 5 


si is. 300 


067.0OO 


1.470.20O 


1893. . . . 


942.894 


737). 886 


1,678 


713.800 


024.600 


1.30S.400 


1894 


937.304 


704,826 


1,642,130 


743.100 


594,000 


1,337,100 


1895. . . 


980.710 


789,660 


1.770.37'.) 


717,900 


051.10!) 


1,369.000 


189G. . . . 


1.025,105 


838,981 


1,864,086 


7:53.120 


050.400 


1,389,526 


1897. . . . 


1.114.006 


865.124 


1.979,130 


763. 50s 


001.407) 


1,467,913 


1898. . . . 


1.209.194 


894.063 


2,103.257 


863.103 


077.604 


1,540.797 


1899 


1,304. '.177 


1,001,278 


2.300.27)7 


872,032 


801.459 


1,673,491 


1900. . . . 


1,372,216 


1,097.50'.) 


2,469,727, 


906,675 


7! 12. 07o 


1,699,654 


1901 


1,290.254 


1,054,685 


2,344,939 


843,256 


774,498 


1.017 77,! 


1902 


1,340,178 


1,113.313 


2,453,491 


848,046 


820,671 


1.O0S.717 


1903 


1,428,640 


1,193,483 


2,622,123 


926,632 


820,685 


1.747.317 


1904 


1,512.328 


1,243.029 


2. 77>7.. 37,7 


868.940 


859,034 


1.727,980 


1905 


1,696,660 


1.364.131 


3.060,791 


922 329 


039,305 


1. S01. 634 


1906 


1,907.210 


1.713.41'.! 


3,452,659 


1.0SO\059 


1.016,240 


2,102,299 


1907 


2,081,066 


1,629,163 


3,710.22'.* 


1,201,031 


1,080,047 


2 281,078 


1908 


1.824,037 


1.522,860 


3,346,897 


1,088,619 


974,791 


2,063,410 


1909. . . . 


2.027.790 


1,568,954 


3,596,744 


1.207). 500 


1,103.584 


1.084 


1910 


2.126,322 


1.778.969 


3,905,291 


1,384.453 


1,203.12! 


2, 581 .577 


1911 


2.309.947 


1,929,243 


1.239.190 


1,556,705 


1,172.834 


2,729 


1912. . . 


2,544.637 


2. 13 1.7 is 


4.676,355 


1,588 553 


1.207, 52 


2.884,081 


1913. 


2,563.331 


2.1O2.907 


4,966,298 


1.642.117 


1,326 


2,969,067 


1914 








1.235.019 


930 68 , 


2,175,304 


1915 














1916 





























Special trade. 



234 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



The decreasing relative impor- 
tance of raw materials in our ex 
ports is shown in the following ta 
bles, the second of which sets forth 
in some detail the recent develop- 
ment : 



is temporary and what part of it 
maj be retained if we determine 
to retain it and determine to give 
our best efforts to retaining it. In 
a table given below it will lie seen 
that our exports to certain of the 



AVERAGE ANNUAL DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES WO THE 
PROPORTION OF RAW AND MAXIFACTIRED PRODUCTS, 1870 To 1914 





Total ValTie 


Foodstuffs 


Raw Materials 


Manufactures 


Period 


Value 


Per Ceni 

of Total 


Value 


Per Cent 
of Total 


Value 


Per Cent 
of Total 


1870-1879. 

1SSII INS!) 

1890-1899. 
1900-1909. 
1910-1914. 


sr,:«), 155,600 
748,011,563 
953,635,567 

1,555,067,656 
2,130,428,647 


$208,959,362 
335,463,721 
419,604,241 
499,351.477 
421,413,854 


39. n 

44.85 
44.00 
32. 11 
19.78 


$211,01(1, r.iil 
259,012,052 
286,653,035 
460,922,051 
705,287,325 


.'ill Ml 

::i 63 
30.06 
."J 64 
33.11 


$170,863,847 
150,055,277 
241.2LM.39S 
585,713,271 
995,831,058 


20.35 
20.06 
25 29 
37.66 
46.74 



DOMESTIC EXPORTS PROM THE UNITED STAPES. CLASSIFIED BY GRE-VT 

GROUPS ACCORDING TO USE AND DEGREE OF MANUFACTURE 

DURING THE FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30, 1914 AND 1916 



< treal Groups 



Crude materials for use in manu- 
facturing 

Foodstuffs in crude condition and 
food animals 

Foodstuffs partly or wholly manu- 
factured 

Manufactures for further use in 
manufacturing 

Manufactures ready for consump- 
tion 

Miscellaneous 

Total " 



Value 



S702.716.1O0 

137,495,121 

293, 2 is. 336 

374,224,210 

724,908,000 
7,122,249 



S2.32M.6SI. 025 



Per Cent 



34 03 

5.90 

12.59 

16.06 

31.11 

31 



Kill 00 



Value 

S536.189.752 
380.799.902 
596,071.882 
662,549,838 

1,996,367,492 

kid. us, '.his 



$4,272,397,774 



Per Cent 



1 2 55 

8.91 

13.95 

15.51 

46 73 
2.35 



I on on 




belligereni European countries have 
increased enormously since the war 
started, and of course much of this 
increase can fairly be attributed to 
munitions of war and to such sup- 
plies as are needed indirectly to 

maintain armies in the field. This 
includes explosives, shells, guns, and 
a percentage Of the clothes, shoes, 
and so on that are now being 
shipped abroad In unprecedented 
quantities, fortunately for all man- 
kind, the demand for such material 
cannot go on forever, and when 
peace is finally made there will be 



DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 



a falling off in such shipments, 
although not so suddenly perhaps 
as has been generally predicted. 

The proportion of temporary busi- 
ness in our European exports has 
been exaggerated, however. It is 
erroneous to suppose, for instance. 
that the demand for pork and wheat 
and corn sold to England and 
France at this time is a temporary 
one brought about by the war. We 
have always sold such supplies in 
Europe, and it is not likely that the 
per capita consumption of foodstuffs 
in a country at war, outside of the 
army, is greater than it is in times 
of peace. Indeed it is very prob- 
able that in a war requiring great 
sacrifices on the part of the general 
population their per capita consump- 
tion may be decreased. It is not 
likely that the men actually at the 
front consume more food than they 
did before the war started. Shoes 
and other articles of wearing ap- 
parel are of course worn out more 
rapidly at the front than in ordi- 
nary walks of life, although there 
is a strong tendency on the part of 
the civilians at home to make such 
articles "go further" than ordinarily. 

In considering our war time com- 
merce with Europe and attempting 
to reach some conclusion as to the 
changes that will take place when 
peace is restored, it is well to bear 
in mind the fact that to counter- 
balance some of the inevitable losses 
there will be a greatly increased 
trade for some years with the na- 
tions that are now wholly or partly 
shut off from our markets. We or- 
dinarily do a great business with the 
Central Powers, but after the war 
we shall be called upon to replenish 
depleted stocks in addition. This 
applies to Allied countries as well 
and perhaps to some of the neu- 
trals. There will also be consider- 
able reconstruction work in which 
the United States is well prepared 
to take part. 

A table is given here to show what 
proportion of our war time exports 
is made up of military supplies. Our 
exports may be divided into three 



groups: (li Exports of actual muni- 
tions of war. including cartridges, 
loaded projectiles, gunpowder, nitro- 
toluol, and other high explosives, 
cannon, rifles, etc.; (2i exports of 
what may be called secondary army 
supplies, including horses and mules, 
automobile trucks and aeroplanes, 
horseshoes, barbed wire, harness 
and saddles, men's boots and shoes, 
wool clothing and blankets, and 
brass, copper, lead, and zinc in pigs, 
bars and other manufactures; (3) 
exports of other products that have 
no direct relation to the war, in- 
cluding breadstuff's, meat and dairy 
products, cotton and its manufac- 
tures, agricultural and other manu- 
factures of iron and steel, leather, 
mineral and vegetable oils, tobacco, 
lumber and other manufactures of 
wood, and other agricultural, min- 
ing and factory products that we 
sell abroad during normal times. 
The total increase in the articles 
included in the third class, which 
are normally exported in times of 
peace, forms practically one-half of 
the increase in our total exports. 
This fact is clearly brought out in 
the detailed figures in tables on 
pages 236 and 237. 

Our trade with Europe, then, has 
recently developed to enormous pro- 
portions and there is a certainty 
that in some items there will be a 
falling off when munitions of war 
are no longer required ; but there 
is also every reason to believe that 
in other lines there will be only a 
gradual decrease or no decrease at 
all. In some lines, as lumber anil 
agricultural implements, an increase 
may be expected. 

Our exporters and manufacturers 
have not failed to realize that an 
unprecedented opportunity for in- 
creased trade has existed for some 
time in countries outside of Europe, 
and the result is thai to-day \vc are 
doing a larger business with South 
America. Asia. Africa and Australia 
than ever before. A larger share 
of our new business is with these 
countries than is generally supposed 
and it is a business to which too 



236 



QUE COUNTR1 RESOURCES 







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238 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



much importance can hardly be at- 
tached. If the war bad ended in 
six months it is probable that many 
dealers in South America, for in- 
stance, would have returned to their 
old European connections, and while 
some may eventually return, no mat- 
ter how long the war lusts, others 
have Indicated that they are satis- 
fied with their new American con- 
nections and will make no further 
changes. Some of our best lines of 
goods have now been on trial for 
some two years where previously 
they were practically unknown and 
they have established themselves 
permanently. The best American 
methods have also come to be under- 

sl 1 where previously they were 

misunderstood. There are, unfor- 
tunately, a few American firms who 
have not realized their responsi- 
bility and have rushed in to take 
undue advantage of the necessities 
of foreign concerns. The trade done 
by such firms will not be retained 
when the war is over, but the bulk 
of our new business is not so done 
and can be retained if the proper 
enterprise is shown. 

The surplus capital that has re- 
sulted from the sudden increase in 
our foreign business will, or should, 
prove the most effective factor in 
making the new business perma- 
nent. Formerly it was rare to have 
gold flow steadily to this side of 
the Atlantic, but recently it has not 



only flowed consistently in this di- 
rection, but in quantities that were 
never approached before in other 
countries. Wisely, much of this new 
capital has been invested in the 
newer and more undeveloped coun- 
tries of the world. This will insure 
our having a hand in building rail- 
roads, establishing industries, con- 
structing lighting and power plants, 
and so forth, and this in turn wili 
make it certain that our manufac- 
turers will share in the business of 
furnishing equipment for such un- 
dertakings. This is a new departure 
for American capital. It is a step 
that has long been recognized as 
necessary if we are to find good for- 
eign markets for our most impor- 
tant products. Coming at the time 
when our exports to such countries 
are growing so rapidly, it can be 
taken as an indication that a large 
share of our new business is to be 
permanent. 

A table is given here to show as 
simply as possible how our trade to 
the various corners of the earth has 
increased recently. It will be seen 
at once how important a share of our 
exports go to regions far removed 
from the war zone. 

The growth of our trade with 
South America has appealed to the 
popular imagination more than that 
with any other district outside of 
Europe, and the assurance that a 
much larger business can be built 



TOTAL VALUES OF EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES TO DIFFERENT 

PARTS OF THE WORLD DURING THE FISCAL YK \RS ENDED JUNE 30, 

1914, 191.5, AND 1916 



Country 


1914 


L915 


1916 


Relative per 

cent of 
L916 to 1914 


lii ■UiL.-iTi-ut Kiiropc 

Other Europe 

( ianada 

< >ther Norl li America. 

Soul h America 

Asia 

Australia and < Oceania 


$1,299,808, 1 is 
186,690,281 
344.716,981 
183,927,981 
124,539.909 
I 13 125,616 
83,568.417 
27,901,515 


$1,565,980,315 
hi:, 154,372 
300 686,812 

176.3SS.9L5 

99.323,957 
1 1 1,470,493 
77,764,725 
28,519,751 


S2.646.037.657 
353,145.772 
166,884 115 
266,005,613 
180,356,555 
278,470,228 
99,241,555 
43.517,070 


203.6 

189 l 
135 4 

lit 6 
144.8 

24.5 5 
lis 7 
155.9 






Total 


$2,364,579,148 


$2,768,589,340 


$4,333,658,865 


INS A 



DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 



239 



up with onr nearest neighbors and 
can bo retained has not only con- 
centrated the attention of manufac- 
turers and exporters on South Amer- 
ican markets and the problems 
connected with entering them to 
advantage, but has. for the first 
time in our history, aroused an am- 
bition in many young men to learn 
the language and customs of the 
countries that lie to the south of 
us. There are hundreds of young 
men now preparing for careers in 
foreign trade where formerly there 
was one, and South America mor.e 
than any other section has been the 
lodestone. If this sudden interest 
does nothing more than prepare 
young Americans for the export 
trade it will have been worth while. 
The trade with the individual 
South American countries in 1016 
as compared with 1914, the year 
preceding the war, deserves careful 
study. This country sold Argentina 
$65,903,611 worth of goods in 1016, 
whereas in 1014 our total sales 
amounted to only $45,170,080. Im- 
ports from Argentina increased even 
more rapidly, for in 1016 we pur- 
chased $112,512,420 worth as com- 
pared with $45,123,088 worth in 
1014. The imports were as usual 
raw materials. Exports to Bolivia 
showed onlv a slight gain — from 
$1,145,555 to $1.367.801— while our 
imports from that country amounted 
to $204,004 as compared to practi- 
cally nothing before the war. Ex- 
ports to Rrazil show an increase 
from $20,063,014 to $41,202,277. an 
encouraging development that holds 
much promise for the future. Our 
purchases from Rrazil increased 
from $101,320,073 in 1014 to $132,- 
663,084 in 1016. Chile bought $17.- 
432.392 worth of goods from the 
United States in 1014. but in 1016 
the amount spent with us had in- 
creased to $24.2<S9.052. We in turn 
greatly increased our purchases in 
Chile, the figures being $25,722,128 
in 1914 and no less than $64,154,859 
in 1916. Our exports to Colombia 
increased from $6,786,153 to $11,- 
125,232 and our purchases incrensed 



from $16,051,120 to $21,458,029. S:iles 
to Ecuador, while not so important 
as thev ought to be. increased from 
$2,067,750 in 1014 to $3,462,040. and 
purchases rose from $3,505,456 to 
$5,848,290 in 1016. Paraguay is the 
one country with which business. 
both import and export, has fallen 
off. Our exports to that country 
amounted to only $173,101 in 1014, 
but in 1016 they had fallen off to a 
mere $73,452. Similarly, our im- 
ports fell from $64,651 in 1914 to 
$53,337 in 1916. Exports to Peru 
increased from $7,141,252 to $10,- 
173.176 and imports from that coun- 
try increased from $12,175,723 to 
$24,326,689. Our trade with Uru- 
guay has resembled that of Peru 
so far as quantity goes, our exports 
in 1914 amounting to $5,641,266 and 
in 1916 to $10,274,426, whereas our 
imports increased from $7,715,144 to 
$14,475,478. Figures for Venezuela 
are also somewhat similar, our ex- 
ports to that countrv increasing 
from $5,401,386 in 1914* to $S,999,272 
in 1916, and our purchases showing a 
jump from $9,763,069 to $14,942,44S. 
The foregoing figures are signifi- 
cant not only in showing that our 
exports to South American countries 
have increased in a satisfactory 
manner in the last two years, but 
also in calling attention to the fact 
that these countries are now selling 
a greater quantity of goods in this 
country. Our purchases consist of 
such essential raw materials as cof- 
fee, rubber, tin ore, nitrates and 
hides, which we need in large quan- 
tities. Before the war much of the 
rubber, all of the tin. and some of 
the hides went to Europe, there to 
be manufactured and shipped across 
the Atlantic again to the United 
States. Probably when the war is 
over the European countries will im- 
port all the raw materials they need 
direct from South America, but it 
is very unlikely that they will ever 
again supply us extensively with 
goods manufactured from South 
American materials. This condition 
not only makes for greater inde- 
pendence on our part, but brings us. 



240 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



into much better relation to the 
South American countries. 

The growth in our export trade 
has been more rapid than the 
growth in our imports and is a sub- 
ject that is much more interesting 
to most Americans. It is quite nat- 
ural to dwell at greater length upon 
what we succeed in selling than 
upon what we have to buy. Never- 
theless the recent great growth in 
our purchases abroad is significant 
and deserves the most careful study. 
In 15)14 we purchased abroad $1,- 

893,925.657 worth of g Is. which is 

not far from normal, but in 1916 
we spent no less than $2,197,883,510 
for foreign products. The table that 
follows shows the purchases made 
by the United States since 1904, by 
continents. 

It will be seen that imports have 
fallen off from Europe only. It has 
been impossible for the manufactur- 
ers in the belligerent countries to 
concentrate on their foreign trade 
as they did before the war; so, in 
spite of the fact that we have had 
more money to spend than ever be- 
fore, our purchases of manufactured 
goods from Europe have fallen off. 
In many quarters this fact is looked 
upon as a favorable one. inasmuch 
as it has resulted in a tendency to 
rely more on our own industries. 
Certainly our American Ingenuity 
has had plenty of opportunity of 



proving itself. We are now success- 
fully manufacturing many lines of 
goods that were formerly exclusive- 
ly imported. 

From other parts of the world, 
however, we are making heavier pur- 
chases than ever before, but such 
purchases, as in the case of South 
American countries already men- 
tioned, have been very largely raw- 
materials, which formerly we im- 
ported indirectly in an unmanufac- 
tured state through European mid- 
dlemen or were manufactured for 
us by European manufacturers. This 
establishment of direct relations 
with the newer and more undevel- 
oped countries of the world will be 
most helpful, not only in saving 
freight charges and in doing out- 
own work in our own factories, but 
in effecting closer trade relations 
with the producing countries. An 
idea of the part played by raw ma- 
terials and manufactured goods in 
our import trade since 1870* may lie 
had from the two tables on page 241. 
the second table showing in sonic 
detail the changes that have taken 
place in the last two years. 

It will be seen that the recent 
trend of our Import trade does nor 
threaten American interests. We 
are making more and more of the 
manufactured goods we need, anil 
importing more and more of the 
raw materials that formerly were 



PURCHASES MADE BY THE UNITED STATES, 1904 1916 



Fiscal Years 

Ending 

June 30— 



1001 

1905. 

KtOti 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912. 

1913 

I'll I 

1915 

1916 



Imports 



Europe 



Dollars 
198.697.379 
540,773,092 
633,292,184 
7 17.291,253 
608,014,147 
654,322,918 

SOO.270.2NO 
768,107.7()0 



North 
America 



I >ollars 
198,778.952 

227. 22! 1. 1 15 

235,353.322 

2o:<.. r >7<>.:?i!i 
238,815,898 
253.999,920 
306.767.486 



South 
America 



Dollars 
120.364,1 L3 
150,795 '■oo 
140,422,876 



Asia and 
< Oceania 



Dollars Dollars 
163,820,151 9, I2i'.. 77i 
1S7.:171. 1 12 I 1,343,622 
204,865,329 12,628," 35 



Africa 



160,165,537 242,260,820 
124,998,590 206,222, 182 
163,878.724 224,610,035 
196,164,786 230,255.139 



105, 196.793 182,623,750 243,724,182 
si!i .-,s.wji; 334,072,039 215,089,316 261 ,932,365 
S92.H66.3N4 361.943,059 217,734,629 31 1,038,218 
895,602,868 127,399.354 222,677,075 329.096,884 
61 I 354,645 473,079,796 261.489,563 300,292,655 
612.252.70!! 59] ,895 5 13 391 ,562.018 533, Hi7. 155 



21,127.466 
16,290.675 

15.1 OS. 627 
1 7. 189,739 
27,213,620 
22,585.888 



Total 



Dollars 
991,087,371 
l.l 17,513,071 
1,226,562, 146 
1,434.421,425 
1,194,341.792 
1,311.920.224 
1 ,556,947,430 
1,527,226,105 
1,653,264.934 
125,34 I 1 ,813,008.234 
19,149,476 1,893,925,657 
2 1,953,081 1 ,674.169.740 
64.765.7 15 2.197,883.510 



DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 



241 



manufactured for us by other coun- 
tries. For the most part the raw 
materials imported are such- as we 
can not produce at home or can not 
produce in sufficient quantities to 
meet the demand. 

Another development of the last 
two years is our transition from a 
debtor to a creditor nation. At least 
it can safely he said that we are 
now a creditor nation so far as cur- 
rent accounts go. This has been the 
result, of course, of shipping abroad 



here at home, but much of it has 
been invested in foreign securities, 
as already mentioned. Just how 
much has been so invested can only 
be estimated, but about the middle 
of U)l(') the figure was put at nearly 
a billion and a half of known in- 
vestments, with many other pro- 
posed loans under consideration. 
The largest loans have been made 
to the belligerent countries, but a 
steadily increasing amount is going 
into the more undeveloped countries 



AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES AND THE PROPORTION 
OF RAW MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS, 1870 TO 1914 





Total Value 


Foodstuffs 


Raw Materials 


Manufactures 


Period 


Value 


Per Cent 
of Total 


Value 


Per Cent 
of Total 


Value 


Per Cent 
of Total 


1870-1879. 
1880-1889. 
1890-1899. 
1900-1909. 
1910-1914. 


$512,021,878 

680,050,955 

757.264.7si 

1,087,799,986 

1,688,874,472 


$1S9, 618,034 
224,892,472 
261,688,223 
266,573.229 
397,517,016 


37.03 
33.07 
34 . 56 
24.51 
23.54 


$74,245,895 
132,740,135 
185,512,723 
357,425,263 
580,339,002 


14.50 
19.52 
24.50 
32.86 
34.36 


$238,691,827 
311,078,907 
303,883,186 
456,177,165 
696,400,401 


46.62 
45.74 
40.01 
41.91 
41.23 



IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES, CLASSIFIED BY GREAT GROUPS 

ACCORDING TO USE AND DEGREE OF MANUFACTURE, DURING THE 

FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30, 1914 AND 1916 





1914 




1916 




Great Groups 


Value 


Per Cent 


Value 


Per Cent 


Crude materials for use in manu- 
facturing 

Foodstuffs in crude condition and 
food animals 

Foodstuffs partly or wholly manu- 


$632,865,800 

247,947,621 

227,644,329 

319,275,488 

449.318,214 
16,874,145 


33.42 
13.09 
12.02 
16.86 

23.72 

.89 


$944,105,228 

251,833,794 

309,708.717 

359,441,501 

315,353,634 
17,440,636 


42.96 
11.46 
14.09 


Manufactures for further use in 


16.35 


Manufactures ready for consump- 


14.35 




.79 






Total 


$1,893,925,657 


100.00 


$2,197,883,510 


III!) Oil 



so much more than we have been 
importing, which has enabled us to 
establish credit abroad, to buy up 

American securities held in Euro- 
pean countries, and to import un- 
precedented quantities of gold. Much 
of this newly acquired capital has 
been used for development purposes 



for development purposes. The pur- 
chase of American securities held 
abroad has proceeded rapidly during 
the last two years and it is safe to 
say that the total amount of paper 
so repurchased reaches well over a 
billion dollars. Some estimates have 
put it as high as two billions. 



242 



oil; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



More accurate statistics arc to he 
had (in the imports (if gold. The net 
inward gold movement aggregated 
$456,032,344 for the twelve months 
ended September 30, 1916. For the 
year previous the total was $205.- 
440.7.">1, showing that the net inward 
movement has doubled within a 
year. More gold has heen added to 
our store in two years than has ever 
been added to the supply of any 
nation before in the same length of 
time, and despite all pessimistic pre- 
dictions it seems only reasonable to 
suppose that this vast accumulation 
will he a powerful factor in enabling 
the country to hold its own in the 
world's commerce no matter what 
circumstances may arise. It will 
enable us to maintain ourselves in 
foreign markets on a much better 
footing than ever before and will 
enable us to meet without embar- 
rassment any foreign demands for 
gold. 

Mention has already been made 
of the fact that we have been deal- 
ing more directly with some of the 
producing countries. A few special 
instances will be of interest in this 
connection. For a great many years 
previous to the war the world's furs 
were sold through London and Leip- 
sic. Our furs, which are mostly 
seal, were sent all the way to 
London to be sold, and not until 
they had been auctioned off and 
dressed and dyed did we see them 

again, greatly enhanced in price as 
the result of two trips across the 
Atlantic, duties, and foreign labor. 
Furs trapped in Northwestern Can- 
ada likewise were shipped across the 
continent, across the Atlantic, and 
back again to us. The war gave us 
the opportunity of organizing fur 
sales in this country, with the as- 
sistance of the Government, and we 
have learned to dress and dye our 

furs quite as well as anybody ever 

did it for us. We now buy the fur 
skins direct from the countries in 
which they are trapped, and very 
likely we shall continue to do so 
when the war is over. 

We are buying more rubber direct 



now than we ever did before, and 
there seems to be no reason why 
we should go back to European mid- 
dlemen in the future. One of the 
most important developments in the 
way of direct buying has been the 
purchase of tin ore from Bolivia. 
We mine no tin in this country and 
have always been content to have 
England and Germany get the ore 
from the Straits Settlements and 
Bolivia and refine it for us. As a 
result of the difficulties encountered 
in getting tin in this manner under 
war time conditions, a company was 
organized in this country to buy ore 
direct from Bolivia and smelt it in 
this country. Fifteen tons of the 
refined metal a day are now pro- 
duced here, and it is tin of the very 
best quality. This direct dealing 
with Bolivia can not help stimu- 
lating commercial relations between 
the two countries. In short, it may 
be said that this country will never 
in the future be wholly satisfied 
with indirect buying arrangements. 

Another interesting phase of our 
new position in world's trade is the 
increasing tendency to substitute 
dollar exchange for sterling ex- 
change. Perhaps it is premature to 
say that the substitution is or is 
not going to be permanent, but it 
is safe to say that the experiment. 
even if merely tentative, has had 
the effect of bringing our merchants 
into much closer touch with the 
merchants of other nations than 
ever before. The establishment of 
branch hanks in South America is 
another important step that has 
been taken recently in an effort to 
put our dealings with our South 
American neighbors on a more satis- 
factory basis. 

In conclusion it might be said 
that the pre-eminent position which 
the United States has come to oc- 
cupy in the last two years has then 
been of inestimable benefit in stimu- 
lating the industries of the country, 
in giving lis an international point 
of view, and in making it possible 
to get into closer touch than ever 
before with the manufacturers, ex- 



DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 



243 



porters, merchants, importers and 

bankers of other countries, and it 
is highly desirable that we do not 
let slip the advantages we have 
gained. It is not desirable, of 
course, that we go on exporting 
twice as much as we import, for 
international trade can not be con- 
ducted on any such basis for an in- 
definite period, but it will be greatly 
to our advantage to remain the first 
commercial nation and to retain the 
best of the great business so recently 
acquired. It can be done if Amer- 
ican business men determine that it 
must be done, if they realize fully 
the importance of foreign trade. 
They can not do it if they return to 
the indifferent methods that pre- 
vailed when the home market was 
looked upon as all-sufficient. 



The necessity of foreign trade 
need not be dwelt on in an article 
of this kind. Even the layman has 
had the opportunity in the last two 
years of seeing what wonders a 
thriving foreign business can accom- 
plish. The fact that our sales 
abroad do not comprise more than 
1 to 5 per cent of our sales at home 
does not mean that the foreign sales 
are of trifling importance, as was 
once commonly assumed. The point 
is that the sales to outsiders are 
large enough to mean the difference 
between stagnation and prosperity. 
They are. so important that our man- 
ufacturers cannot afford to let them 
fall off, ; and it is my opinion that 
they will not allow any but the most 
temporary part of our new business 
to get away from them. 




RACINE REEF LIGHTHOUSE IN WINTER 
GARB 







MODERN METHODS OF ORE HANDLING IN THE HOLD OF A SHIP 



CHAPTER XX. 

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL 
PREPAREDNESS 

By Dr. EDWARD EWING PRATT 

CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE, DEPARTMENT OF 

COMMERCE 



WE are indebted to the great 
European war for the slogan 
"Preparedness." The word 
was in the dictionary before hostil- 
ities began, but it lacked any real 
vitality. Americans had always as- 
sumed that they were pretty well 
prepared for almost any eventuality, 
as individuals and as a community. 
If we needed to fight we had a pop- 
ulation of a hundred million to fall 
back on: if we ever came to a pass 
where we needed more foreign trade, 
we could go out and get it; if we 
needed to make tilings that others 
had always made for us, all we had 
to do was make them. We were 
living in a fool's paradise. 

We know now that we were not 
adequately prepared to do anything 
Init drift and muddle along rather 
prosperously by virtue of immense 
resources, favorable geographical 
situation, and a native ingenuity 
and resourcefulness which we had 
inherited from our pioneer ances- 
tors. What we have learned about 
the necessity of military prepared- 
ness will not lie discussed here. This 
article will be concerned with pre- 
paredness for the commercial strug- 
gle which will come when peace is 
declared and with the preparations 
we are making and must make to 
achieve industrial independence of 
the older manufacturing nations of 
Europe. 



As has been said many times, we 
have become the leading commercial 
nation of the world. This is not 
only true, but is becoming increas- 
ingly evident with the passing of 
each month. In August and Sep- 
tember, 1916, our exports exceeded 
half a billion dollars, which is not 
only a higher figure than we ever 
reached before, but is much larger 
than any nation ever achieved be- 
fore. Our imports have also grown 
rapidly, but the balance of trade in 
our favor has attained enormous 
proportions and our industrial pros- 
perity is so pronounced and so real 
that the most carping critics no 
longer question it. The question is, 
can this great trade and this great 
prosperity survive the war? 

It is certain that we cannot retain 
all of the present trade and it is 
not at all certain that we can continue 
as prosperous as we have been 
throughout 101(1. But it is certain. 
I think, that we need not suffer so 
serious a disturbance when peace is 
declared as has been pictured in some 
quarters. We have acquired much 
new business that can be retained 
if we make the proper efforts to re- 
tain it, and as the war goes on our 
opportunities for acquiring more 
business of that sort increase. We 
need a thorough appreciation of the 
necessity of keeping our hold on 
as much of our newly acquired trade 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



246 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



as possible when the war is over. 

We "ii this side of the Atlantic 
are under the necessity of holding 
our own in foreign markets if we 
an- to avoid difficulties when the 
war orders cease, and it is well t" 
bear in mind that the belligerent 
nations will he under the necessity 
of winning back their old markets 
if they are to meet the obligations 
they have incurred in the war. It 
will he a hitter fight, with no quarter 
asked and no quarter given. Our 
competitors will not only try to oust 
us from our foreign markets, but 
undoubtedly will carry the fight 
right into our home markets. 

In planning to meet this struggle 
we must consider conditions that 
w ill arise immediately upon the ces- 
sation of hostilities and also the 
more permanent conditions resulting 
from the war. A number of our 
important industries will he disar- 
ranged when peace is made. Manu- 
facturers of munitions and other 
supplies needed by the armies are 



well aware of this fact, hut there 
are two classes of manufacturers 
who are not facing the facts. One 
class is manufacturing the materials 
that go into the munitions and the 
other is turning out goods that arc 
not munitions, but which are re- 
quired for military purposes. Such 
manufacturers should determine 
just how much their business has 
been stimulated by the war. and 
they should carefully charge enlarge- 
ments of plant and equipment 
against present profits. It will he 
necessary also to keep in mind the 
fact that soon after peace is made 
there will be decided changes in the 
trade routes of the world. There 
will be important readjustments in 
the principal markets. It will be 
an important matter for us to have 
a large influence in determining 
these changes. 

The permanent effects of the war 
are of equal importance to us. The 
European nations will he compelled 
to seek foreign markets as they 




THE CZAR OF RUSSIA AND MILITARY OFFICERS WITH AMERICAN BUILT RED 
CROSS AMBULANCE IN THE FOREGROUND 



COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 



241 



never sought them before. But let us 
consider carefully under what condi- 
tions they will be obliged to seek 
them. Will they be as formidable 
after the war as they were before? 
There has been a wide difference of 
opinion among economists as to how 
the cost of production in Europe 
after the war will compare with 
what it was before the war. but 
the longer the war continues the bet- 
ter agreed are the authorities that 
costs as a whole will be higher. There 
has been a tremendous loss of men, 
of labor power. Millions have been 
killed and other millions incapaci- 
tated. In almost all the belligerent 
countries there has been a rapid and 
steady diminution of capital. It has 
been used up in destruction instead 
of production. Taxes are certain 
to be excessive for years to come, 
for immense debts have accumulat- 
ed. Fiscal affairs will be disorgan- 
ized. These facts are given here 
to show that the increased cost of 
production in our country should not 
be considered an insurmountable 
handicap in the coming struggle. 
The point is that we are confronted 
with no insurmountable difficulties. 
There is no circumstance which 
definitely debars us from holding 
our own when the test comes. 

The problems in foreign trade 
which we must work out are dif- 
ficult ones, however, and deserve our 
most careful attention, for the sta- 
bility of our prosperity will depend 
almost entirely upon our success in 
such trade. It was our foreign 
trade which was interrupted when 
the war broke out, and it was this 
interruption which threatened the 
most serious economic consequences. 
The war taught us that our domes- 
tic prosperity is most vitally con- 
cerned with the prosperity of our 
foreign trade, and it is for success 
in this foreign trade that we must 
carefully plan. Let us consider a 
number of important factors that 
will have a bearing upon our success 
in such trade. 
First of all comes the question 



of men properly prepared to carry 
on our business with and in foreign 
countries. We have never had an 
adequate supply of such men. The 
young American has never seriously 
considered preparing himself for 
such work. Other fields have ap- 
peared more attractive to him. 
Where we have had one capable 
man for such work the English and 
Germans have had dozens or per- 
haps hundreds. We must set about 
painting the advantages of the for- 
eign field in their proper colors and 
we must at once concern ourselves 
with training men in a practical, 
efficient manner. We must have 
men who know business, who know 
their own particular business, who 
know foreign languages, who know 
how to sell goods, and, above all, 
men who can go into foreign mar- 
kets with a sympathetic point of 
view. For the foreign field we need 
men who are diplomats as well as 
drummers. 

We must also pay more attention 
to financing foreign trade. We must 
familiarize ourselves not only with 
the extension of credits, the estab- 
lishment of branch banks, the dis- 
counting of paper, but with the 
whole mechanism of foreign ex- 
change and the investment of Ameri- 
can capital in foreign countries. Of 
such things most of us have known 
very little. We must be willing and 
able to provide funds for the con- 
struction of public utilities, factor- 
ies, mining plants, warehouses, and 
other public improvements. 

The establishment of a convention- 
al tariff system 's another factor 
that will be necessary in our cam- 
paign for foreign trade. Many na- 
tions are able, by reason of their 
tariff systems, not only to prohibit 
the sale of or to handicap the im- 
portation of commodities from econ- 
omically unfriendly nations, but 
they are also able to encourage the 
exportation of their own commodi- 
ties by advantageous bargains with 
countries which are economically 
friendly. A conventional tariff sys- 



248 



oTTR COUNTRl AND its RESOURCES 



I cm is simply a tariff system with 
an international point of view. 

It is also important that we pro- 
pare to become the market place of 
the world for certain staple com- 
modities. In the past we have been 
contenl to purchase our rubber, tin, 
wool, furs and so on through Eng- 
land and Germany. It is necessary 
that we handle some of these sup- 
plies ourselves. We must prepare 
the machinery for handling them 
economically — the facilities for grad- 
ing the articles, for buying and sell- 
ing, for settling disputes, and so on. 
We have already made some satis- 
factory progress in this direction, 
and there is no good reason why we 
should ever go back to the old way 
of buying through European middle- 
men. 

One of the most important factors 
in our campaign will lie our mer- 
chanl marine. We are turning out 
new tonnage more rapidly now than 
any other nation, and we should 
continue to do so. Large accessions 
to our merchant tleet have resulted 
from the Ship Registry Act. We 
have beard many opinions to the 
effect that our navigation laws are 
antiquated and operate to the dis- 
advantage of American boats, yet 
there is no important difference be- 
tween our laws and those of other 
important maritime countries, and 
there will be fewer differences as 
time goes on and certain European 
countries have an opportunity to 
carry out plans formulated a short 
time before the war started. 

So much for some of the important 
factors we must bear in mind in 
making our preparations. Now lei 

us consider some of the steps al- 
ready taken. 

Thanks to the Federal Reserve 
Act our financial resources are for 
the tirst time in our history mobil- 
ized for foreign trade. 

To the Federal Trade Commission 
we can look for guidance in the mat- 
ter of co-operating in foreign trade. 
This commission will also see to it 
that we are protected from unfair 



competition in our own markets on 
the part of foreign manufacturers. 

A Tariff Commission has been 
authorized by Congress. The bene- 
fits that will come from a scientific, 
non-partisan commission of this sort 
are too numerous to mention. In 
forming this commission we have 
taken one of the most important 
steps in the direction of commercial 
preparedness. 

A Shipping Board has also been 
brought into being. For the first 
time in our history we now have an 
efficient instrument for shaping the 
growth and policies of our merchant 
marine. 

Definite and constructive work in 
advancing our trade frontiers is be- 
ing done by the Bureau of Foreign 
and Domestic Commerce, of the De- 
partment of Commerce. This bur- 
eau collects information about for- 
eign -Markets for American goods. 
The sources are the consuls, the 
newly appointed commercial at- 
taches, and a corps of traveling 
special agents. The office at Wash- 
ington is the warehouse, and the 
staff there and at the district offices 
is engaged in selling the information 
for action. Action is the price and 
results are the object of our work. 
The Bureau is rapidly improving in 
efficiency. 

Private Corporations have been 
organized for financing foreign en- 
terprises and large sums of Ameri- 
can capital have been made avail- 
able for use in countries that form- 
erly depended entirely upon Euro- 
pean financiers. Nothing will sta- 
bilize our newly acquired foreign 
trade quite so effectively as the ap- 
pearance of American gold. 

The lumber manufacturers of the 
"West have organized an export 
sales company to assist in the sale 
of Douglas fir in foreign markets. 
This company will undertake the 
grading of lumber for export, the 
proper seasoning of such lumber, and 
an extensive propaganda. It is one 
of the most intelligent steps that any 
American Industry has taken in this 



COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 



>49 



direction. It should be studied care- 
fully by every other industry de- 
sirous of taking steps to insure it- 
self against disaster when the war 
is over. 

There is much that remains to he 
done before we can look forward 
with complete assurance that when 
the war is ended we shall he able 
to hold the trade we have recently 
acquired in the world's markets. 
We are still in the midst of busy 
preparations for the future, or 
should be. We cannot prepare too 
carefully, because failure will mean 
a depression from which it may take 
years to recover. 

There is another phase of indus- 
trial preparedness quite distinct 
from that concerned with hold- 
ing our own in foreign markets. 
I mean preparedness to produce 
here at home all articles that are 
essential to our well being. We 
must make ourselves independent of 
the manufacturers of foreign coun- 
tries. That does not mean that we 
must sever all relations with foreign 
manufacturers, but it does mean that 
we should be in a position to get 
along without them if need be — if 
there should be another great war 
between the important manufactur- 
ing countries of Europe or if we 
should get into such a war ourselves. 

In a large measure we are al- 
ready independent. If intercourse 
with every other nation in the world 
were cut off, we could manage to 
get along. We could produce suf- 
ficient food for everyone and suf- 
ficient clothing and fuel. Our iron 
and steel industry is practically self- 
contained. Building materials we 
have in plenty. There would he no 
suffering for lack of real necessi- 
ties. Inconvenience and annoyance 
there would he though, and. if we 
were involved in a great war our- 
selves, perhaps a serious shortage 
of some materials essential for the 
manufacture of munitions. We de- 
pend upon other countries for many 
lines that we would sorely miss. 
We know it now, for we have missed 



them during the last two years. Are 
we going to be in the same position 
some time in the future? 

We have made considerable pro- 
gress in establishing new industries 
to supply goods formerly made for 
us by Europe and in expanding old 
industries to meet the war-time de- 
mand for such goods. These new 
industries have resulted either be- 
cause certain lines of goods former- 
ly received from the Central Towers 
and Belgium have been cut off alto- 
gether or because accustomed sup- 
plies from the Allies have been great- 
ly reduced by the shortage of ships. 
In either case we are learning to 
manufacture goods that we previ- 
ously purchased abroad and this ex- 
perience will undoubtedly, in the 
long run, be of more real benefit to 
the country than the temporary mu- 
nitions business. 

Our principal purchases from Ger- 
many, in the order of their value, 
have been hides and furs, cotton 
manufactures, dyes and chemicals, 
machinery and other manufactures 
of iron and steel, potash, pottery, 
silk and silk manufactures, toys, 
glace leather and glace-leather 
gloves, rubber, paper and paper 
manufactures, and salt. Germany 
had a practical monopoly of several 
of these classes — such as dyes and 
certain chemicals, potash and toys. 
It seems hardly necessary to say 
that the cutting off of these lines 
was a serious matter for us. We 
soon realized that we must make a 
serious effort to manufacture our 
own coal-tar products and at least a 
certain amount of our own potash. 

How well we have succeeded with 
the coal-tar dyes is pretty generally 
known. Not every user of dyed 
goods is wholly satisfied that the 
quality of our dyes is yet all that it 
should be. but it should he borne 
in mind that the demand on the hur- 
riedly built plants was enormous 
and that in some cases it was in- 
evitable that quantity rather than 
quality should lie given first con- 
sideration. Improvement in quality 



'jr,d 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOPRCES 



has taken place steadily, however. 
and it is not likely that much more 
fault will be found in that direction. 
We are now producing about half 
the ordinary requirement of some 
29,000 tons annually and the differ- 
ence has been partly made up by 
the use of natural dyes. Congress 
has accorded protection to the new 
industry in the shape of additional 
tariff and the Bureau of Foreign and 
Domestic Commerce has supplied a 
detailed census of the dyes we im- 
ported in normal times. This census 
is aimed to assist manufacturers in 
determining how much of each color 
is actually needed by the dye users 
of the country. Previous to the publi- 
cation of this work only our dyestuff 
importers had any such knowledge 
of the market. One Buffalo manu- 
facturer has stated that the census 
has saved him a million dollars and 
years of wasted effort. 

There are a number of other coal- 
tar products for which we formerly 
depended upon foreign manufactur- 
ers, including carbolic acid, aspirin, 
acetanilid, photographic developers. 
salicylic acid, saccharin, creosote and 



benzoic acid. These are all manu- 
factured at home now. although not 
in the quantity that might be wished. 
Prices are very high. Rut we have 
demonstrated our ability to manu- 
facture them and it is not likely 
that we shall allow the experience 
to go for naught. 

The lack of potash has been a 
sore point. The German deposits can 
be worked so cheaply that in the 
past there has been no incentive 
to recover the material from kelp, 
alunite or other sources, but when 
the German supply was cut off there 
began an eager searching of our own 
resources. The result has been that 
we have made considerable progress 
in recovering potash from kelp, alu- 
nite, the brine of certain alkaline 
lakes, tobacco stems, mica and in the 
manufacture of Portland cement. 
The supply has been barely sufficient 
for industrial use. however, and our 
fields have had to do without it. 

But our children have not been 
obliged to do without toys. Ameri- 
can ingenuity stepped in quickly 
when the supply of German toys 
was cut off and so far as novelty 




AGRICULTURAL FAIR AT JOHANNESBURG. SOUTH AFRICA. SHOWING 
AMERICAN MOTOR CARS AND AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS 



COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 



251 



goods are concerned we are better 
supplied now than ever. Good 
progress has also been made in imi- 
tating typical German products, and 
it is not at all likely that Santa 
Glaus will ever again import heavily 
from abroad to fill our stockings. 
As a matter of fact we are doing 
some foreign business in this line 
ourselves and satisfactory relations 
have already been established with 
dealers in England, Australia and 
South America. 

We are now importing tin ore 
from Bolivia and doing our own 
smelting. Formerly we depended 
almost entirely upon Englan d 
and Germany for our refined tin. 
These countries bought their sup- 
plies of ore and partly refined 
tin from the Straits Settlements 
and Bolivia and did the work 
of completing the refiniug for us. 
The war interfered with getting 
the supply in this manner and 
a firm was organized to import the 
ore from Bolivia and smelt it in 
this country. The new plant is now 
turning out fifteen tons of the finest 
tin a day. We need about 45,000 
tons a year. 

An attempt is being made to es- 
tablish an all-American linen in- 
dustry. For years before the war 
started the Tinted States was the 
greatest consumer of linen goods in 
the world and practically all such 
goods were purchased abroad. The 
war has greatly interfered with 
these imports, for Russia is by far 
the greatest producer of the raw 
flax fiber required by the Irish, Bel- 
gian and French mills. In this coun- 
try flax has been raised almost en- 
tirely for the seed, which is used 
to manufacture linseed oil, and the 
Department of Agriculture has esti- 
mated that in 1915 there were some 
3,000,000 acres devoted to this crop. 
Of this great total only 2,000 acres 
were planted in flax for fiber, the 
yield for this purpose being esti- 
mated at only 4.000,000 pounds. It 
should be kept in mind that flax 
growing for seed and flax growing 



for fiber are two separate and dis- 
tinct industries. To some extent 
flax is grown for both seed and 
fiber, but the farmer must decide 
which is to he the main product and 
which the by-product, just as the 
sheep raiser must decide whether 
wool or mutton is to be the main 
consideration when he selects the 
stock he is to raise. In Russia the 
flax grower not only raises the flax 
but prepares the fiber for the mills, 
and this is a disagreeable and in- 
sanitary process and one that de : 
pends upon very cheap labor. The 
problem in this country was to find 
a satisfactory chemical process of 
preparing the fiber that could be 
carried on in a factory. Such a 
process has apparently been worked 
out, for several important concerns 
are now buying flax on a large scale 
in the West. They are also assist- 
ing the farmers in a financial way. 
The manufacture of the coarser 
goods from this straw is now being 
carried on successfully and in time 
the high-grade linens will be made 
also, in spite of the reputation of 
foreign makes. In the past our 
foreign linen bill has been some- 
where between 25 and 30 million 
dollars annually. 

The manufacture of certain lines 
of cotton goods has expanded in a 
surprising manner since the war 
started. There has been a marked 
increase in the production of fine 
count and novelty fabrics and manu- 
facturers have demonstrated their 
ability in designing and finishing 
such goods. Embroidery cotton. 
both mercerized and plain finished, 
heretofore produced almost exclu- 
sively abroad, is being made satis- 
factorily by domestic spinners. There 
has also been an increase in the 
manufacture of brass bobbin yarn 
for lace manufacturers. The large 
demand for all tine counts, combed, 
gassed and mercerized yarns has 
forced a considerable increase in 
production. Scrubbing, wiping and 
allied cloths produced with yarns 
spun from cotton waste, and hereto- 



OUR mrXTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



fore imported largely from Germany 

and Austria, arc qow made in this 
country. 

The shutting < ►it" of the supply of 
full-fashioned hosiery formerly im- 
ported from the Chemnitz district in 
Germany lias -ready stimulated the 
production of such hosiery in this 
country, as well as some grades of 
fine-gaged seamless hosiery. The 
shortage of dyes has been the only 
obstacle in the way of completely 
meeting the demand for the best 
grades of hosiery. 

The only large artificial-silk plant 
in this country has doubled its ca- 
pacity since the war started and 
it is said that several other such 
plants are to he started. 

Several firms that previous to the 
war imported loopers and flat bar 
knit tin- machines have started the 
manufacture of these articles. 

Before the war this country de- 
pended almost as a matter of course 
upon German and Austrian sources 
for sugar-beet seed with which to 
keep L'tiin.i,' our flourishing young 
beet-SUgar industry. Ordinarily the 
consumption of such seed in this 
country is aboul 135,000 bags, or 
approximately 15,000,000 pounds. 
and this is almost exactly the 
amount of seed we imported in 1913. 
It is estimated that the production 
of seed in 1916 was 60,000 bags and 
that in 1917 we shall have a yield 
of sr..(Ml() bags. The present pro 
ducers assert that they are going 
righl ahead until it is no longer 
necessary to depend upon outside 
sources. 

An American industry with a mil- 

li lollar market has come info 

existence as a result of Cutting off 
the imports of petroleum from Rus- 
sia. By the end of 1914 at least a 
score of American refiners were ex- 
perimenting in the new tield and at 
least ten sources of domestic white 
oil for medicinal purposes were de- 
veloped. These new American prod- 
ucts arc quite the equal of the Rus- 
sian product and will probably hold 
the market permanently. 



The war found us unprepared to 
manufacture enough lanolin, or re- 
lined wool grease, to meet the de- 
mand. Ordinarily we import about 
12,000,000 pounds of crude wool 
grease and 2,500,000 pounds of lan- 
olin. The domestic production of 
crude grease is about 6,000,000 
pounds, hut very little lanolin has 
ever been made at home. We have 
always used the crude grease in tan- 
neries, cordage factories, etc.. ami 
left to others the work of prepar- 
ing the refined wool fat. so valuable 
in salves, ointments and emulsions. 
Now we are at work doing our own 
refining. 

A well-known St. Louis firm is 
dressing and dyeing 10,000 sealskins 
by a process formerly used only in 
England. The plant is being ex- 
panded. In the past we sent the 
skins to London for dressing and 
dyeing, in spite of the fact that we 
are the largest producers of seal- 
skins in the world and the largest 
consumer. The first sale of fully 
dressed and dyed sealskins wholly 
"made in America" ever held in this 
country took place in October, 1916. 
We shall never go hack to the old 
way of carrying on this business. 

Within the last two years there 
has been introduced into this coun- 
try the chemical porcelain industry, 
with the help of the Bureau of 
Standards. Only a short time ago 
there was not an American manu- 
facturer who believed chemical 
porcelain could he made from Amer- 
ican materials in American factor- 
ies. \ow two establishments are 
making the best type of modern 
chemical porcelain. 

In the pas) much of the clay used 
in this country in the manufacture 
of porcelain came from England, 
that for the manufacture of eruei- 
bles and other high refractories from 
Germany, ami that required for 
other line products from France. 
Experts in the Department of Com- 
merce have pointed out that clays 
for all these purposes may lie ob- 
tained in the Tinted States and by 



COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 



proper treatment be made equal and 
in many cases superior to the ma- 
terial heretofore supplied by Europe. 
Many of these clays are found in 
the South and are now being used 
commercially. 

Before the war all naphtha and 
gasoline safety lamps were pur- 
chased in Europe. Since the war 
started some of the foreign patents 
have expired and several American 
lamps of this type have been placed 
on the market. With the help of 
the Bureau of Mines there have also 
been developed several types of per- 
missible electric safety lamps, which 
are now in the market in competi- 
tion with foreign makes. 

The war has had a very stimu- 
lating effect on the production of 
crude and calcined magnesite in 
California. In times past these de- 
posits have been used very sparing- 
ly, and principally in connection with 
the paper industry. In 1913 the 
imports amounted to approximately 
168,000 tons, while the domestic pro- 
duction did not reach 10,000 tons. 
The imported material was largely 
used in the manufacture of refrac- 
tory furnace lining and in the man- 
ufacture of paper from wood pulp. 
No exact data as to the present out- 
put of the American companies are 
available, but it is thought that the 
domestic production in 1916 was 
about equal to the former imports. 
Eastern users, however, are urging 
grea ter ] (reduction. 

There has been a striking increase 
in the production of cutlery and 
related articles. The old American 
preference for imported articles has 
kept alive in this country a thriving 
business in such articles. Barber 
.shears, razors, butcher knives, 



cleavers, boning knives, and so on, 
are now supplied by American man- 
ufacturers in sufficient quantities to 
meet the demand. All these articles 
needed was a fair trial. 

As a result of restriction placed 
upon the shipments of asbestos from 
Canada, which is the world's chief 
source of supply, we are now pay- 
ing attention to our own deposits. 
In 1915 there was a great increase 
in the production of high-grade as- 
bestos in Arizona. The lower-grade 
asbestos produced in this country 
comes mainly from Georgia. De- 
posits are now reported from the 
Caspar Mountain and other regions 
in Wyoming. The Geological Sur- 
vey is of the opinion that the pres- 
ent output can be greatly increased. 

The list could be greatly extended, 
but the foregoing should be sufficient 
to prove the point that when Ameri- 
cans are forced by necessity they 
can manufacture practically any 
line of goods. We have it in us to 
make ourselves industrially inde- 
pendent of all other nations in case 
of necessity, and we are rapidly 
making progress in that direction. 

From the evidence in the case 
therefore, it appears that it is pos- 
sible to make preparations that will 
save us from disaster in foreign 
trade when our old competitors re- 
enter the field. We haven't made 
all the necessary preparations at this 
writing, but we are doing well and 
there is a great deal of vitality in 
the movement now where at first 
there was only talk. And we are 
proving that we never again will 
have to depend upon others for im- 
portant products. "Preparedness" 
has a real and vital meaning for 
Americans to-day. 




Copyright by B. G. Mitchell 

THE WOOLWORTH BUILDING 
The Tallest Commercial Structure Ever Erected, Ilome of the "Scientific American." 



CHAPTER XXI. 
EDUCATION 

FROM DATA FURNISHED BY THE IT. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION 



I. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS 



THERE are nearly 22,500,000 
enrolled in educational insti- 
tutions in the United States. 
Of these, 19,500,000 are in elemen- 
tary schools; 1,450,000 in secondary 
schools, both public and private, and 
216,000 in colleges and universities. 
Close to a hundred thousand are in 
normal schools preparing to be 
teachers ; 07,000 are in law, medical 



and other professional schools, and 
the remaining million or more are 
in various types of educational in- 
stitutions. There are 700,000 teach- 
ers, of whom 5S0,000 are in public 
schools. Annual expenditures for 
education aggregate $NOO,000,000. 

The following table summarizes 
the latest school and college enroll- 
ment figures.* 



SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ENROLLMENT IN THE UNITED STATES 





Public 


Private 


Total 


Elementary (kindergarten, primary and 
grammar) 

Secondary (high schools and academies) 

Secondary (preparatory departments of 
higher institutions) 


17,934,982 
1,218,804 

22,414 
87,820 
12,289 
89,537 


1,626,310 
154,857 

63.324 

128.673 

54,777 

5,749 


19,561,292 
1,373,661 

85,738 
216,493 


Professional schools 


67,066 


Normal schools 


95,286 






Total for the above 


19,365,846 


2,033,690 


21,399,536 








610,966 

54,798 
13,370 
4,971 
15,253 
32,718 

3.666 
3,100 


168,063 
489 
687 

20,000 
74,725 
60,000 


610,966 


Business schools 


168,063 


Reform schools 


54,798 


Schools for the deaf 


13,859 


Schools for the blind 


4,971 


Schools for the feeble-minded 


15,940 


Government Indian schools 

Schools m Alaska supported by the Govern- 
ment 


32,718 
3,666 


Other public schools in Alaska 

Orphan asylums and other benevolent institu- 
tions (estimated) 


3,100 
20,000 


Private kindergartens (individually reported) 
Miscellaneous (art, music, etc.) (estimated). . 


74,725 
60,000 


Total for special schools 


738,842 


323,964 


1,062,806 






Total for all schools in the United States 


20,104,688 


2,357,654 


22,462,342 



*From Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1910. 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



256 



OUR ColXTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 





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II. ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION IN 
TIIK IMTKI) STATES 

Education in the United Stales 
has developed as a State rather 
than a national matter. All the 
States provide elementary educa- 
tion, ranging from seven to nine 
years, and secondary education of 
one or more years, and in practically 
every State higher educational op- 
portunities are available without 
cost for tuition to both sexes. Re- 
cently provision has been made in 
some States for adequate vocational, 
commercial and professional educa- 
tion at public expense, but only a 
small number of States have as yet 
created State systems of vocational 
education. Support of schools is 
from State and local sources, the 
proportion ranging from Massachu- 
setts; where 96.8 per cent of the 
funds come from local taxation, to 
Alabama, where only 24 per cent of 
the funds for school purposes come 
from local taxation and C....4 per 
cent from the State. The Federal 
Government early in its history 
made important grants of land for 
general educational purposes; it 
gives financial aid to agricultural 
and mechanical colleges and experi- 
ment stations in all States, and has 
recently begun to support extension 
education for agriculture and home 
making. It has also maintained. 
since ls(!7, a Federal Bureau of Ed- 
ucation which serves as a clearing 
house of information on education 
for the benefit of all the States. 
Control of public schools, originally 
centered in the local community, has 
lately become transferred in large 
measure to the county and to the 
State, as State aid and responsibil- 
ity for education have broadened. 
Conditions still vary, however, from 
almost complete State domination 
in a few States to nearly complete lo- 
cal autonomy in others. The National 
Government exerts no control over 
education in the States other than 
that involved in the administration 
of certain land grant funds and ap- 
propriations for extension educa- 
tion. The function of the Federal 



EDUCATION 



257 



Bureau of Education is advisory 
rather than administrative. 

III. COMPULSORY EDUCATION 

Education is compulsory, to a 
greater or less degree, in all the 
States except one — Mississippi. 
Massachusetts adopted a compul- 
sory education law in 1852. Ver- 
mont followed in 1867; Michigan, 
New Hampshire and Washington in 
1871 : Connecticut and New Mexico 
in 1S712; Nevada in 1873; California, 
Kansas. New York, New Jersey, 
Maine, Ohio, Wyoming and Wiscon- 
sin between 1S74 and 1880. The 
more recent adoptions have been in 
the Southern States : Alabama, 
Florida, South Carolina and Texas 
in 1915 and Georgia in 1916. The 
laws vary widely in scope and ef- 
fectiveness. In some States they are 
operative only after acceptance by 
counties and local communities; in 
others they are effective for only 
part of the territory of the State, 
large areas being exempted. The 
upper age limit for compulsory at- 
tendance ranges from age 12 in 
Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina 
and Virginia, to age 16 in sixteen of 
the States, and IS, under certain 
conditions, in one (Idaho). The 
more usual compulsory period is 8 
to 14 years of age, or "until com- 
pletion of the eighth grade." The 
minimum attendance in any one 
year varies from twelve weeks in 
Nebraska and Virginia to the "full 
school year" in twenty-nine States. 
Compulsory education laws have 
usually been fortified by State child 
labor acts and more recently (1916) 
by a Federal child labor law. 

IV. ILLITERACY 

Illiteracy in the United States is 
7.7 per cent as compared with 1 
per cent in Great Britain, 4.3 per 
cent in France and 0.0. r » per cent in 
Germany. According to the census 
of 1910 there were five and a half 
million illiterates in the United 
States over 10 years of age. This 
is over a million more than the 
combined total population of Mon- 



tana, Idaho, Wyoming. Colorado, 
New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Ne- 
vada and California (4,447,507) ; or 
of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Massachusetts and Rhode Island 
(5,438,945) ; or of South Carolina, 
Georgia and Florida (4,877,140). A 
State made up of these illiterates 
would be nearly as large as Illinois 
(5,638,591). There were more il- 
literates in 1910 than comprised the 
entire population of the United 
States in 1S00 (5.403.3S3), or the 
equivalent of the entire combined 
metropolitan population of Phila- 
delphia, St. Louis, Boston, Cleve- 
land, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Detroit, 
and Buffalo. The percentage of il- 
literacy in the United States was 
lowered between 1890 and 1010 from 
13.3 per cent in 1890 to 10.7 per cent 
in 1900, and 7.7 per cent in 1010 ; but 
the number of illiterates decreased 
less than 15 per cent and the num- 
ber of foreign born illiterates in- 
creased 43 per cent. More than 
two-thirds of all illiterates are 
country-dwellers ; the rural illiteracy 
(10.1 per cent) is nearly twice that 
in the cities (5.1 per cent). Exist- 
ing illiteracy is therefore ascribed 
to foreign immigration and lack of 
school facilities in country districts. 
The State and national governments 
are aiding city evening schools to 
eliminate illiteracy among the for- 
eign born, and several States — Ken- 
tucky, Alabama, North Carolina — 
have created State illiteracy commis- 
sions to deal with the problem in 
rural communities. 

V. TYPES OF SCHOOLS 

Elementary. — Elementary educa- 
tion in the United States has become 
almost exclusively a public function. 
Of the 1.626.310 pupils reported in 
private elementary schools, 1,429,859 
are in parish schools of the Catholic 
Church. Private kindergartens and 
special schools account for a large 
part of the remaining number. 

Secondary. — The high school is 
the most typical American educa- 
tional institution. There are 11,674 
public high schools, of which 8,440 



258 



()IK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



have four-year courses. Secondary 
education has become more and 
more a public function; 89 per cent 
of the secondary students arc in 
public high schools. It is estimated 
by the T'nited States Bureau of Edu- 
cation that 25 out of every 100 
children who enter school reach the 
high school, and that 10 out of every 
100 graduate from high school. The 
most important recent change in sec- 
ondary education is the gradual in- 
troduction of the so-called "six-and- 



and 46S under private control ; 327 
are controlled by religious denomi- 
nations : 140 are for men only; S3 
for women only: and 340 are coedu- 
cational. There are 152,307 men 
students and 84,861 women students.* 
The number of men students has 
tripled and the number of women 
students has more than quadrupled 
since 1*90. 

The following table shows the dis- 
tribution of school enrollment in the 
elementary and higher grades: 



DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL ENROLLMENT ACCORDING TO ESTIMATED 

PERCEXTAGKS 



( trades 



First grade 

Second grade 

Third gride 

Fourth grade 

Fifth grade 

Sixth grade 

Seventh grade 

Eighth grade 

Total elementary. . 

First year high school . . 
Second year high school 
Third year high school.. 
Fourth year high school 

Total high school . . 

Higher institutions 

('•rand total 





Estimated 


Estimated 


enrollment 


per cent. 


in grades 


23.50 


4,596,904 


14 . 79 


2.893,115 


13.91 


2,720.976 


13.28 


2.597.739 


1 1 . 28 


2,206,514 


9.25 


1.809,419 


7.63 


1.492.527 


6.36 


1.244.098 


100.00 


19.561,292 


40.14 


585,803 


26.75 


390.389 


is st 


274,951 


14.27 


208,256 


100.00 


1.459,399 




378.845 








21,399,536 



•These an- later figures than appear in the general summary at the beginning 
of this chapter. 



six" plan of organization, whereby 
six years are assigned to elementary 
education and six to secondary, the 
latter period being divided into 
"junior" and "senior" high schools 
of three years each. A hundred and 
fifty cities had taken steps toward 
adopting this form of organization 
in V.H.-.. 

Higher Education. — Of the 563 
colleges and universities listed by 
the Tinted States Bureau of Edu- 
cation, 95 are public Institutions 



VI. TEACHERS 

Of the 700.152 teachers employed 
in the Tinted States. 169.029 are 
men and 537,123 women. The num- 
ber of teachers nearly doubled in the 
thirty years between 1885 and 1915. 
Nearly five-sixths of the teachers in 
public elementary schools are wo- 
men, and of the .">7.'.m> < .> public high 
school teachers. 32,862 are women. 
The colleges and universities have 
5.293 women instructors and 19,447 
men. The following table summar- 



EDUCATION 



ur.«.) 



izes the number of teachers in vari- 
ous types of schools. 

VII. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Six States — Massachusetts, New 
Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, In- 
diana and Wisconsin — have regular- 
ly established systems of vocational 
or industrial education. Two others 



been pointed out that prior to the 
outbreak of the European war more 
trade workers were being trained :it 
public expense in the city of Munich 
than in all the larger cities of the 
United States combined. 

\ail. COST OF EDUCATION 

The estimated cost of education 



TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES 



Teachers in- 



Public elementary schools 

Public high schools 

Private elementary schools (estimated) 

Private high schools 

Universities and colleges: 

Preparatory departments 

Collegiate departments 

Professional schools: 

Theology 

Law 

Medicine 

Dentistry 

Pharmacy 

Veterinary medicine 

Normal schools, public: 

Normal department 

Other departments 

Normal schools, private: 

Normal department 

Other departments 

Commercial and business schools 

Schools for defectives and delinquents 

Indian and Alaskan schools 

Kindergartens and miscellaneous (estimated) 

Total 



Men 



89,615 

25,047 

8.060 

5,820 

2,484 
16,963 

1,516 
1,471 
6,955 
1,532 
744 
364 

1,636 
605 

136 
132 
2,019 
1,175 
1,255 
1,500 



169,029 



Women 



432.534 

32,862 

39,354 

8,070 

1,493 
3,800 



2,904 
981 

223 

131 

1,731 

2,728 
1,638 
8,674 



537,123 



Total 



522,1 fi 
57,909 
47,414 
13,890 

3.977 
20,763 

1.516 
1,471 
6.955 
1 ,532 
744 
364 

4,540 
1,586 

359 

263 

3,750 

3,903 

2,893 

10,174 



706,152 



— California and Connecticut — 
maintain State-aided vocational 
schools, and some form of vocational 
or industrial education is provided 
by eight other States, while in the 
States which do not provide State 
aid for vocational education separate 
municipalities have established sev- 
eral types of vocational education at 
public expense. The need for indus- 
trial training for the youth of the 
nation has been urged by organiza- 
tions of business men, labor-union 
workers, and schoolmen within the 
past few years as a measure of 
national conservation and prepared- 
ness. European nations — especially 
Germany — have been ahead of the 
United States in this regard. It has 



in the United States for 1914, the 
latest vear for which statistics are 
available, was $794,459,968. The 
table over leaf shows the distribu- 
tion of this expenditure and the per 
capita cost for different types of 
schools. 

IX. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS TO EDUCATION 

In the forty-four years. 1871 to 
1914, private philanthropy added 
$5S4.4lN,0s2 to the available funds 
of colleges and other educational in- 
stitutions in the United States. The 
bulk of these funds goes to colleges 
and universities. < >f the $31,357,398 
given in 1914. $26,670,017 was for 
universities and colleges, $1,558,281 
for schools of theology, $203,067 for 



_'.;n 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



SCHOOL i:\ROLLMKNT AND ESTIMATED COST 



Classification 



! Estimated 
Enrollment, j per capita 
KM 4 cost 



Estimated 
total cost 



Public elementary schools 

Public high schools 

Privato elementary schools 

Private high schools 

Other public and private secondary schools 
Universities, colleges and professional schools 

Normal schools 

Commercial and business schools 

Reform schools 

Schools for the deaf 

Schools for the blind 

Schools for the feeble-minded 

( rovemment Indian schools 

Schools in Alaska supported by the Federal 

Government 

Other public schools in Alaska 

Orphan asyhmis. etc 

Private kindergartens 

Miscellaneous — music, art, etc 

Total 



17,934,982 

1,218,804 

1,626,310 

154,857 

85,738 

283,559 

95,286 

168,063 

-.4, 7! IS 

13,859 

4.971 
15.940 
32,718 

3,600 
3,100 

20,000 
74.725 
60,000 



S27 . 11 

50.54 

32 00 

94. 10 

157 .47 

335.57 

158 34 

50 . 00 

157. 92 

300 . 80 

498 34 

555 . 42 

116.69 

50.13 
50 . 00 

200 . 00 
32.00 

100.00 



S4S0.105.90S 

68,91 1,178 

52,041,920 

14.572.044 

13.501,103 

95,153.894 

15,087.585 

8,403,150 

8,653,700 

4,168,787 

2,477,248 

8,753,495 

3,817,863 

205.773 
155,000 

4,000.000 

2,391 .200 
6,000,000 



$36.36 



$794,459,968 



law schools, $1,405,773 for medical 
schools. $607,431 for public normal 
schools, $116,283 for private normal 
schools, ami $706,546 for private sec- 
ondary schools. The following table 
shows the annual amount of gifts 
and bequests to education since 1894 : 

GIFTS AND BEQUESTS TO EDUCATION, 

1894-191 1 

1894 $10,855,365 

1895 8,240,87fi 

1896 11,677,048 

1897 10.049.141 

1898 lo.9si.209 

1899 25.332.792 

1900 15.066,561 

1901 21.158,400 

1902 20,348,739 

1903 17.915.075 

1904 17. 201.: ::75 

1905 21.827,875 

r.mi; 23.347,070 

1907 28,585,780 

1908 19.763,421 

1909 21.192.450 

1910 24.755.663 

1911 27,634,029 

1912 30.061,310 

1913 29.651,879 

1914 31,357 398 

X. LIBRARIES 

There were over 1S.000 regularly 
established libraries io the roiled 
states in L913, containing more than 
75,000,000 volumes. The number of 



volumes is an increase of 20,000,000 
since 1908. 










READING K00M. CONGRESSIONAL 
LIBRARY 



EDUCATION 



261 



Of the 2,S4!) libraries containing 
5,000 volumes or over, 1;844 are 
classified as "public and society li- 
braries," and 1,005 are school and 
college libraries. Public and society 
libraries have an aggregate of over 
fifty million volumes, with seven 
million" borrowers' cards in force; 
1,446 of these libraries were entire- 
ly free to the public- 
Libraries reporting from 1,000 to 
5,000 volumes numbered 5.453, of 
which 2,188 were public and society 
libraries, and 3,265 school libraries. 
These libraries contained 11,689,942 
volumes. Another group of libraries, 
comprising those that reported from 
300 to 1.000 volumes, increased the 
total by 2,961,007 volumes. 



Of the 1,844 public and society 
libraries with over 5,000 volumes 
reported for the entire United 
States, more than half were in the 
North Atlantic States, and they 
contained 24,627.021 volumes out 
of the total of fifty millions; and 
of the three million volumes added 
to library collections for the year 
1913, almost one-half were for the 
same section. New York State 
had 7,842,621 volumes in her 213 
libraries; Massachusetts, 7.380,024 
in 288 libraries: Pennsylvania, 3,- 
728,070; and Illinois, 3,168,765 
volumes. Four-fifths of the bor- 
rowers' cards in use were in the 
North Atlantic and North Central 
States. 




Plioto Harris & Ewiu; 



ENTRANCE HALL, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



CHAPTEK XXII. 
THE NEW NAVY 



THE NAVAL PROGRAMME OF 1916. 



ON August 29, 1916, President 
Wilson signed the Naval Ap- 
propriation Bill, authorizing a 
three-year building programme, of 



greater size and importance than 
this nation has ever previously con- 
templated. To get a perspective on 
this bill and what it means, consider 



INCREASE OF NAVY SINCE 1903 



Year 


Appropriation 


Amount for 
increase navy 


Building programme 


1906 


S102.091.670.27 


$33,475,829.00 


1 first-class battleship 
3 torpedo-boat destroyers 
8 submarines 


1907 


98,958,507.50 


23,713,915 00 


1 first-class battleship 

2 torpedo-boat destroyers 


1908 


122,063,885 47 


30 307 962 00 


2 first-class battleships 
5 colliers 














10 torpedo-boat destroyers 








8 submarines 


1909 


136,935.199.05 


38,819,595.00 


2 first-class battleships 
1 collier 

8 destroyers (3 sub-surface) 
4 submarines 


1910 


131.350,854.38 


33,770,346.00 


2 first-class battleships 
2 colliers 

6 torpedo-boat destroyers 
4 submarines 


1911 


126,478,338.24 


26,005,547.67 


2 first-class battleships 

2 colliers 

1 river gunboat 

1 gunboat 

2 tugs 

4 submarines 

1 submarine tender 

8 torpedo-boat destroyers 


1912 


123,225,007.76 


20,569,373.48 


1 battleship, first line 

2 fuel ships 
6 destroyers 

1 destroyer tender 

8 submarines 

1 submarine tender 


1913 


140,800,643.52 


35,325,695 . 00 


1 battleship 
1 transport 
1 supply ship 








6 destroyers 
4 submarines 


1914 


144,868,716.61 


41,091,734.00 


3 battleships 
6 destroyers 
8 (or more) submarines 


1915 


149,661,864.88 


46,853,801.00 


2 battleships 

6 destroj era 

2 seagoing submarines 

16 coast-defense submarines 

1 oil fuel ship 



Copyright by Muiin & Co., Inc. 



264 



01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



the figures on the preceding page 
shovi ing the increase during the past 

years. 

Wilh these figures in mind con- 
sider the present bill, which in addi- 
tion to provision for enlarged per- 
sonnel and material authorizes ten 
battleships, six battle cruisers, ten 
scout cruisers, fifty destroyers, nine 
fleet submarines, fifty-eight coast 
submarines, three fuel ships, one re- 
pair ship, one transport, one hos- 
pital ship, two destroyer tenders, 
one submarine tender, two ammuni- 
tion ships and two gunboats. .As 
soon ns is practicable, which means 
in the very near future, four battle- 
ships, four scout cruisers, four hat- 
tie cruisers, twenty destroyers, thirty 
coast submarines, one fuel ship, one 
hospital ship, one ammunition ship 
and one gunboat are to be begun — 
indeed, the bill makes it mandatory 
to contract for or begin construc- 
tion on lliese within six months. 

For months the technical bureaus 
of the Navy Department have been 
working on the designs of the ves- 
sels. In these designs they have in- 
corporated military characteristics 
which are the result of the lessons 
learned from naval operations in the 
war and their application to the re- 
quirements of the Navy. The de- 
partment advertised for bids for the 
construction of four battleships, four 
scout cruisers, twenty destroyers 
and thirty submarines of two dis 
tinct types the day the bill was 
affirmed and at the same time di- 
rected the navy yards at Philadel- 
phia, Boston and Charleston to pro 
ceed with the construction of the 
hospital ship, tin' fuel ship and the 
gunboat, respect ively. 

The battleships, known for the 
iirevent .-is Nos. 45 to 48, inclusive, 
will be slightly larger than their 
predecessors, the "Tennessee" and 
"California." Their chief charac- 
teristics are: Displacement, 32,600 
tons; sliced. 21 knots; battery, eight 
16 inch guns, eighteen 5-inch guns, 
four 3-incb antiaircraft guns; coin 
plement, 1,022, They will have the 

large cruising radius which cbarac 



terizes all recent United States bat- 
tleships. Their armor and under- 
water protection will be unusually 
complete. 

The scout cruisers, known as Nos. 
4 to 7, inclusive, will be the largest 
and fastest vessels of this class ever 
laid down for any navy. The chief 
characteristics are: Displacement, 
7.100 tons ; speed. 35 knots ; length, 
550 feet ; beam, 55 feet : armament, 
eight 6-inch guns, four torpedo tubes 
and two 3-inch anti-aircraft guns ; 
complement. 330. Their high-pow- 
ered machinery installations will be 
protected by light but etlicient ver- 
tical and horizontal armor. A new 
feature never before incorporated in 
any ship of a powerful military type 
will be the equipment for carrying, 
launching and operating four of the 
largest size hydro-aeroplanes. 

The torpedo boat destroyers, 
known as destroyers Nos. 75 to 94, 
inclusive, will carry a heavy battery 
and will have an unusually large 
cruising radius. They represent a 
small increase in displacement over 
the last class laid down, but will 
deliver an increased speed of about 
live knots. Their chief characteris- 
tics will be: Displacement, 1,185 
tons; speed. 35 knots; battery, four 
4-inch guns, four triple torpedo 
tubes, two anti-aircraft guns ; com- 
plement. !>">. They will attain their 
rated speed on full designed dis- 
placement, and not on a very much 
lesser displacement, which can only 
be attained by the stripping of many 
essentials, as in a number of foreign 
boats of this class, for which very 
high speeds are claimed. 

Of the coast defense submarines, 
twenty-seven will be of the usual 
type known as Nos. 7S to 104, in- 
clusive. The remaining three. Nos. 
105, 106 and 107. will be a new type 
representing ;i marked increase in 
size over the usual coast-defense 
submarine and a decrease in size 
from the very large fleet submarine. 
Bach of those three vessels will rep- 
resent different ideas in their de- 
tailed designs, and the Navy hopes, 
in their development, to arrive at a 



2GG 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



size of vessel which will be sutii- 
ciently large to perforin nearly all 
the duties required of a submarine, 
but at the same' time will be suffi- 
ciently small to enable it to be built 
quickly in large numbers. 

The hospital ship will be the first 
built especially for this purpose for 
the Navy, those now in use being 
converted merchant vessels. The 
design has been worked out by the 
technical bureaus of the department 
in constant consultation with the 
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, 
with the result that it will embody 
every feature of the most up-to-date 
hospital on shore. It will have ac- 
commodations for 500 patients. Its 
chief characteristics and dimensions 
are : Displacement, 9.S00 tons ; 
length. 460 feet; breadth. 60 feet 
10% inches ; draft. 19 feet 6 inches ; 
speed, 16 knots. As this vessel will 
be, under the terms of the Geneva 
Convention, immune from capture or 
attack in time of war, it will not, in 
accordance with the terms of that 
convention, carry an armament of 
any kind for offense or defense, and 
its design includes no military fea- 
tures of any sort. 

The fuel ship, known as fuel ship 
No. 16. will be a large oil tanker, of 
ordinary commercial type, except 
that its design will meet the re- 
quirements for a vessel which must 
accompany the battle fleet and be 
prepared to supply fuel oil to ves- 
sels of all sizes under adverse con- 
ditions of wind and sea. Its chief 
dimensions and characteristics are: 
Displacement, 14.r>o<> tons; length, 
1") feet; beam. 56 feet; draft. 26 
feet I inches (about); total dead 
weighl carrying capacity, 0,600 tons; 
speed. 1 ( knots. 

The gunboat, known as gunboat 
No. 21, will be a vessel designed espe- 
cially for long-continued service in 
tropica] waters. Its chief charac- 
teristics win be : I dsplacement, i.."»7r» 
tons; length, -11 feet 2 inches; 
breadth. II feet 1' " :, inches; draft, 
11 feet 1 inches; armament, three 
I men guns, two 1-pounder guns, 
four 30-caliber machine guns, two 



3-inch field guns, two 3-pounder 
guns; speed, V2 knots; complement, 
149. 

The only designs of the current 
programme not yet completed are 
those for the battle cruiser and the 
ammunition ship. Plans and speci- 
fications for the battle cruisers will 
be completed and issued to bidders 
about October 1, 1916, and for the 
ammunition ship November 1, 1916. 
This will permit contracts to be 
placed in advance of the termina- 
tion of the six months i>eriod named 
in the Appropriation Bill. 

VESSELS IN THE NAVY 

According to the official reports 
there were upon the Navy list 399 
vessels June 30, 1915, listed as fol- 
lows : Battleships, 41 ; submarines, 
57 ; fuel ships, 24 ; tugs, 4S ; yachts, 
16 : cruisers, 24 ; gunboats, 31 ; de- 
stroyers, 69; torpedo boats, 20; 
transports, 6; tenders, 9; monitors, 
9; special types, S; supply ships, 5; 
hospital ships, 2; armored cruisers, 
10, and ships of all kinds in au un- 
serviceable condition, 20. In addi- 
tion to this list of ships there are 
authorized by the Naval Act of 




Copyright American Press Association 
SUBMARINE "D-l" 



268 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES 



March 3, 1915, battleships Nos. 13 
and 44. destroyers Nos. C.!> to 84, 
inclusive, and submarines Nos. 60 to 
77. inclusive. Appropriations for 
the beginning of the construction of 
these vessels were made available 
July 1, 1915. 

It is expected thai on July 1. T.»17. 
there will he in active commission 
I he following vessels : 

Battleships 22 

Armored cruisers ■> 

Cruisers U 

Destroyers 52 

Gunboats r r ; 

Submarines " ,i; 

Destroyer tenders 4 

Submarine tenders •"> 

Tra asports - 

Repair ships - 

Pleel tugs G 

I [ospital sliip 1 

Fleet colliers (manned by naval 

crews i 4 

Mining ships ~ 

Supply ships '■'• 

Ammunition ship 1 

Ami ill reserve with 40 per cent 
complements : 

Battleships over 15 years old 17 

Armored cruisers - r > 

Cruisers 11 

Destroyers IG 

old torpedo boats 10 

Destroyer tender ("Dixie," 104).... 1 

Submarine tender ("Iris," 86) 1 

Supply ship (100) 1 

Transport ( 100) 1 

NAVY OF THE FUTURE 

In its 1915 departmental report 
the Navy Department lists those 
ships Of the present licet, afloat and 
building, which will be serviceable 
in 1922. To this list must now be 
added the authorized ships in the 
most recent Navy bill, in order to 
gain an idea of what our present 
and projected Navy will amount to 
when the present stupendous pro- 
gramme is completed. Of course, 
the present plans arc to complete 
the programme prior to 1922, and 
unquestionably further additions 
Will be made to the Navy in future 

Congresses; bul the following ''*'• 

which is compiled from the Navy 

i 'epartmehl ffjjtires pins those of the 
,iew hill, should Indicate the ap- 
proximate Strength dl the Navy In 



usable, fightable ships at a date of 

approximately 1920 to 1922, as far as 
present knowledge can project it: 

Sllirs OF THE FLEET SERVICEABLE IX 

1920-1922 

Dreadnoughts, first line -7 

Pre-dreadnoughts, second line 13 

Superannuated pre-diead-noughl . 

third line 

Battle cruisers 6 

Scents 31 

Destroyers 108 

Fleet submarines 1- 

Coast submarines 120 

Find ships 16 

Repa Ir ships '5 

Supply ships 4 

Transports j> 

Hospital ships ~ 

Mine ships 3 

OesTrover tenders 4 

Fleet submarine tenders li 

Ammunition ships 2 

Harbor defense monitors |> 

Harbor defense battleships '\ 

Gunboats - ,; 

NAVY YAKIis. STATIONS. POSSESSIONS 

To the average man the Navy con- 
sists of the vessels which float in 
the water and such property as may 
he upon them. To the naval man. 
however, the property ashore neces- 
sary to maintain the ships at sea is 
every whit as important as the ves- 
sels themselves, and. as will he seen 
in a moment, is no inconspicuous 
part of the expenditures necessary 
to make or maintain the Navy. 

The United states possesses eleven 
navy yards in the United states. 
located at Portsmouth, Boston, New 
fork, Philadelphia. Washington, 
Norfolk. .Mare Island. Puget Sound. 
Charleston. Pensacola and New Or- 
leans. Across the water it has navy 
yards in Hawaii. Cavite and Olon- 
gapo. It possesses naval stations at 
Port Royal and Key West, and 
abroad at Guantanamo, San Juan. 
Guam and Tutuila. It possesses 
training stations at Newport. San 
Francisco ami the Great Fakes; 
Coaling stations at Frenchman's 
Fay and Melville, and in addition 
has property at Sitka. Alaska: New 
London; Conn.: Yokohama. Japan; 
the Naval Academy ai Annapolis. 
the naval proving ground at Indian 
Head, a naval hospital at Fas 



THE NEW NAVY 



289 



Animas, a naval base at Culebra and 
a torpedo station at Newport, R. 1. 
The investment in these naval estab- 
lishments totals $196,050,020 since 
the beginning of the modern idea of 
the Navy in 1800, when the Ports- 
mouth, Boston, Washington and 
Norfolk navy yards were first estab- 
lished. 

COST OF NAVY 

The total cost of all the ships 
upon the Navy list to the date men- 
tioned, and excluding the new work 
authorized in the Naval Act of 
March 3, 1015, or the ships author- 
ized in the tremendous 1916 bill, is 
$450,686,551.32. 

It must not, however, be supposed 
that adding together the cost of bat- 
tleships and the cost of naval estab- 
lishments gives any idea of the cost 
of the entire Navy since it was first 
begun. The total expenditures for 
the Navy from 1701 to 1015, inclu- 
sive, totals the unthinkable sum of 



$3,214,339,051.10. This, of course, 
includes ships, establishments, pay, 
materials and all expenses in con- 
nection with the Navy Department. 

HOW NAVY APPROPRIATIONS ARE SPENT 

The Bureau of Supplies and Ac- 
counts of the United States Navy 
requires a closely printed statistical 
report of 204 pages to summarize 
the financial operations of the Navy. 
Nothing, therefore, but the most 
comprehensive and inclusive statis- 
tics can be given in the short space 
here available. The table on the 
next page will be found interesting 
as showing the principal items of 
expenditures in connection with the 
Navy. 

New expenditures authorized for 
the Navy include $11,000,000 for an 
armor plant and $1,500,000 for an 
experimental and testing laboratory. 

ENLISTED PERSONNEL 

Having a certain number of fight- 
ing ships and the required naval 














BLUEJACKETS, NAVAL TRAINING STATION, NEWPORT, R. I. 



270 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 

PRINCIPAL ITEMS 

Amount appropriated by Congress for the fiscal year 1913 $145,616,241.90 

Total expenditures during 1915 142,959,092.11 

Expenditures for maintaining ships in commission: 

Operation $40,890,S93.90 

Repairs to ships 4,931,279.89 

( lhanges 3,071,837.55 

Repairs to equipage 430,757.34 

Total $55,324,768.68 

Expenditures lor construction of vessels: 

Battleships $20,029,890.37 

Gunboats and fuel ships 1,913,950.53 

Destroyers 5,475,285.52 

Submarines 3,636,416.40 

Tenders and tugs 935,121.34 

Total (at navy yards, $4,540,152.65; under contract, $27,450,- 

511.571 $31,990,664.22 

Expenditures for pay and allowances of officers and men : 

Navy : $41,185,445.10 

Marine Corps 3,920,503.99 

Total $45,106,009.09 

Cost of subsisting the enlisted men of the Navy and Marines afloat. $5,897,181.54 

Average cost of subsisting one man for one day .36 

Cost of maintenance of navy yards 10, 275,490.03 

Cost of all work done at industrial yards: 

Labor $17,843,707.50 

Material 14,958,449.00 

Indirect expense 4,277,083.91 

Total $37,079,300.47 

Value of materials received into store (including ordnance material) . $112,118,204.44 
Value of materials issued from store (including ordnance material.. 105,482,564.30 

Property investment of naval establishment : 

Ships $459,686,551.32 

Stations 206,635,104.59 

Stores 192,070,228.07 

Total $858,391,884.58 

Expenditures for naval militia $905,220.07 

Present value of clothing and small-stores fund : 

Stock $3,587,075.04 

Money 1,517,347.50 

Total $5,104,422.54 

stations, buses ami navy yards to propriations and provision for this 

keep them in condition, a navy increase. 

would nevertheless he helpless were The total enlisted force in the 

it not for its personnel, regarded by United states Navy was. on June 

Navy nun as equally Important with 30, 1915, 52,561 men. of which 47,505 

material ami equipment, ami gener- were native born ami 5,056 were for- 

ally all too much disregarded by the eigll horn. Of these. 48-.908 were 

appropriating power, unfortunately white, the balance being negro, Chi- 

a non-technical body of men. Never- neso. Japanese, Filipino. Samoan, 

theless. the last ( Congress, in its huge Hawaiian. American Indian and 

building programme, look cognizance Porto Rican. Fifteen States of the 

of the fad thai more men and offi- United states furnish 65 per cent of 

cers were necessary and made ap- the enlisted force. New York fur- 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



nishes the largesl number of native 
born American seamen in the Amer- 
ican Navy. 6,719, ami Alaska the 
smallest number with <">. 
Contrary to the general opinion 

the United States Navy dues not 

have difficulty in obtaining men for 
enlistment. Its trouble comes in the 
high standard which makes the ma- 
jority of applications result in re- 
jections. For instance, during the 
year 1915 there were 102,561 appli- 
cations for enlistment. Of these 
only 17.704 were enlisted ami 6,29] 
of this number were re-enlistments. 
Over 61,000 of the rejections were 
on account of disability and 17,000 
for other causes. 

In order to supply men qualified 
for certain ratings in the Navy, the 
following schools are maintained: 

Electric schools at New York and 
.Mare Island. 

Machinists' school at Charleston, 
S. C. 

Torpedo school at Newport, R. I. 



Coppersmith school at Philadel- 
phia. 

Fuel oil school at Philadelphia. 

Artificer school at Norfolk. 

Xeoman schools al Newport and 
San Francisco. 

Commissary schools at Newport 
and San Francisco. 

Hospital attendant schools at 
Newport and San Francisco. 

Musician schools at Norfolk and 
San Francisco. 

Mess attendant school at Norfolk. 

During the last fiscal veal - 12,27s 
men were pursuing courses at these 
various schools. Of these. 1,302 
completed their course and were de- 
tailed to active duty. 

A new class of enlisted men at 
the Pensacola Aviation School is 
formed every three months. Some 
of these men arc taught and exer- 
cised in the principles of Sight, and 
all are trained in the mechanics of 
aviation. 

On January 1 a school for the 



DISTRIBUTION OF ENLISTED MEN OCTOBER 1. 1915 

Vessels afloat (Including 305 insular force) 41,593 

Four training stations, including those under instruction, Instructors 

and necessary details 4,494 

Fifteen trade schools, including these under instruction, instructors 

.-in. I necessary details 1,376 

Total 5,870 

Sixteen hospitals : 

Hospital attendants 398 

Patients 1479 

Total i-" ' 

Recruiting s tations : 

Thirty-five main stations; eighty-three substations *o< 

Radio stations • ; .l'; 

Aeronautic station g \-'\ 

Vessels under construction -*•■ 

.Shore duty at navv yard, naval stations and special duty: 

Special duty •, 1J0 

Seamen branch, yeomen, artificers, hospital corps, messmen ami 

bandsmen '1'^ 

insular force 1£>d „,„ 

Total B " 

Not available : 1Q 

Insane asylums £« 

Prisoners i.i<'-> 

Traveling, ieave, unavailable 300 

Total 1 ' 4 *"^ 

Grand total 52 ' 636 

Insular force (included in above table) : j-g 

Cavite 177 

< Hongapo . <s 

!;";"", :::::::: <;r> 

I nluila 

Total 458 



274 



OT'Ii COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



care and handling of gasoline en- 
gines was added to the School for 
Machinists' Mates at Charleston. 
It embraces a three months' course, 

in which the men learn to handle 
motor boats and vessels which use 
this type of small engine. 

The radio courses at the Electric 
Schools at New York and Mare 
Island have been extended to in- 
clude, besides the Continental Morse 
Code, the American Morse Code, so 
thai all the men who qualify at 
these schools may be competent to 
talk to any commercial shore sta- 
tions as well as the naval stations. 

DESERTIONS 

One of the troubles of all navies 
is found in the practice of deser- 
tion. Many men cannot stand dis- 
cipline, others become dissatisfied 
for one reason or another, and, fail- 
ing to understand the seriousness of 
the offense or being willing to take 
the chance of punishment if detect- 



ed, absent themselves from the Navy 
without permission and thus become 
deserters. Two thousand three hun- 
dred and twenty men thus deserted 
during 1915, a decrease of several 
hundred under 1914 and a still 
larger decrease from lul.'l and 1912, 
the figures for which are respect- 
ively 8,1237 and 3.055. Of the 1915 
deserters, 4S0 voluntarily returned 
to service, and 41.'! absentees were 
apprehended and delivered. 

In 1!>07 a finger print identifica- 
tion system was installed in the 
identification office which now con- 
tains the linger prints of 133,214 
men, including, of course, all those 
who have enlisted in the Navy since 
the establishment of this system. 
The result of the finger print sys- 
tem is to prevent re-enlistment 
under assumed names of men who 
have deserted from the Army and 
Navy or Marine Corps or who have 
heen discharged for various reasons 
which would prevent them from re- 




LAYING THE KEEL OF A EATTLESHIP IS AN IMPRESSIVE CEREMONY 



276 



OUR <<»! N'IKV AND ITS RESOURCES 



entering the service under their own 
oames. 

OFFICERS 

The officers of the Navy are of 
various classes, as follows: Line, 
Medical, Dental, Pay. Chaplains. 
Professors of Mathematics, Naval 
Constructors and assistants. Civil 
Engineers and assistants. Chief 
Warrant Officers and Warrant Otli- 
cers. On June 30, 1915, there were. 
of all kinds. 3,803 officers in the 
service. 

Their classification is shown in 
the appended table: 

June 30, 
1915 

Line 2,02!) 

Medical 351 

Dental 31 

Pay 221 

Chaplains 27 

Professors of mathematics 17 

Naval constructors and assist- 
ant naval constructors 77 

Civil engineers and assistant- 
civil engineers 40 

Chief warrant officers 4f!S 

Warrant officers 542 

Total 3,803 

Sixty-nine per cent of the Line 
Officers, •"'"> per cent of the Warrant 
Officers, 41 per cent of the Medical 
Corps, 4". per cent of the Pay Corps, 
30 per cent of the Dental Corps, 1 
per cent of the Naval Constructors 
and 53 per cent of the Chaplains 
were doing sea duty during 1915. 
It is therefore obvious — what is sel- 
dom understood by the layman — 
that a large proportion of the avail- 
able officers of the Navy must be 
engaged in shore duty — ranging all 
the way from Annapolis work to 
being in charge of a radio station, 
from assignment to a navy yard to 
that of the Naval Observatory — 
without which the Navy as a fight- 
ing organization would he like a 
movable body without a directing 
head. 

According to the provisions of the 
new Navy Bill, commissioned offi- 
cers l of the line i instead of being 
an arbitrary number will he based 
on a percentage of the number of en- 
listed men. The new law provides 
that their shall he line officers to 



the number of 4 per cent of the en- 
listed personnel. At the present 
time there are. in round numbers, 
54.000 enlisted men. This number, 
however, is to he largely increased 
in the near future as fast as enlist- 
ments can he made. Sixty-eight 
thousand men tire authorized, and 
4 per cent of this number, or 2,720, 
is the number of line officers which 
will command the new Navy. 

Inasmuch as the number of offi- 
cers in each grade has also been 
placed upon a percentage basis, a 
great deal of changing .and promo- 
tion is going on. At the present 
writing, 500 junior officers are tak- 
ing examinations for promotions, 
and practically all who pass will be 
promoted. Congress, having in- 
creased the number of appointments 
to Annapolis, has provided for an 
increase of trained officers in the 
future. In a short time Annapolis, 
instead of training from 900 to 1.2(H) 
young men in the magnificent plant 
where the Navy makes officers, will 
be housing and teaching 1.500 or 
more at a time. 

NAVAL CONSULTING BOARD 

One of the most spectacular ac- 
complishments of the present ad- 
ministration as far as the Navy is 
concerned is the organization of the 
Naval Consulting Board of Civilian 
Experts to advise with the Navy 
I department 

Some of the greatest improvements 
utilized by the Navy have come from 
civilian inventors and civilian engi- 
neers. It was a civilian who in- 
vented the "Monitor," built the first 
submarine, mastered the science of 
flight, perfected wireless communi- 
cation, invented the gyroscope com- 
pass, electric steering gear, electric 
propulsion and silk floss life pre- 
servers. 

The Secretary of the Navy. Mr. 
Josephus Daniels, invited Thomas 
A. Edison to help form this board. 
Mr. Edison's acceptance was hailed 
by the country as proof of a new 
era joining the powers of invention 
and the training of naval experts to 
apply new discoveries to the in- 






THE NEW NAVY 



277 




A FOURTEEN INCH 50-CALIBER GUN 



creased efficiency of the Navy. 
Members of eleven leading scientific 
societies were asked to choose two 
members each of the Naval Consult- 
ing Board. Its members have no 
status except the status of American 
citizens glad to respond to a call 
to put their talent, genius, learning 
and time at the service of their 
country. They even pay their ex- 
penses when on their governmental 
mission. As thus constituted, named 
by their own societies, without 
political or other suggestion, the 
board as originally constituted was 
composed of the most distinguished 



civilian experts, each one of whom 
in some department has won a high 
place in his profession. 

The original composition of the 
committee was as follows : 

Thomas A. Edison, Chairman, and 
Miller Reese Hutchinson, Assistant 
to the Chairman. 

American Chemical Society — W. 
R. Whitney and L. H. Baekeland. 

American Institute of Electrical 
Engineers — Frank J. Sprague and 
P>. (i. Lamine. 

American Mathematical Society- 
Robert S. Woodward and Arthur G. 
Webster. 




Copyright Harris & Ewing 

THE NAVAL CONSULTING BOARD IN SESSION 



278 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




Copyright International Film Service 
THE SUPERDREADNOUGHT 
"PENNSYLVANIA" 

American Society of Civil Engi- 
neers—Andrew M. Hunt and Alfred 
Craven. 

American Aeronautical Society — 
.Matthew B. Sellers and Hudson 
.Maxim. 

inventors' Guild Peter Cooper 
Hewitt and Thomas Robins. 

American Society of Automobile 
Engineers— Howard E. Coffin and 
Andrew L. Hiker. 

American Institute of Mining En- 
gineers (Metals)— William L. Saun- 
ders and Benjamin B. Thayer. 

American Electro-Chemical Soci- 
ety Joseph W. Richards and Law- 
rence Addicks. 

The American Society of Mechan- 
ical Engineers William Le Hoy 
Emmet and Spencer Miller. 

American Society of Aeronautic 
Engineers Henry A. Wise Wood 
and Elmer A. Sperry. 

They organized by the election of 
these Officers: Chairman. Thomas 
A. Edison; First Vice-Chairman, 

Peter Cooper Hewitt: Second Yiee- 
Chairman, William L. Saunders; 



Secretary, Thomas Rollins: Assist- 
ant to the Chairman. M. R. Hutchi- 
son. 

POWDER 

The Navy as a whole has so many 
activities, it is difficult to know 
what to omit from so general a sur- 
vey as this must be. But no navy 
is of any use without guns, and guns 
can't shoot without powder ! 




'POMP AND CIRCUMSTANCE" 
ANNAPOLIS 



During the fiscal year 1915, 3,984,- 
978 pounds of smokeless powder was 

manufactured at the Indian Head 
(Md.) powder factory. This pow- 



THE NEW NAVY 



279 



der cost $0..°,41256 per pound, con- 
siderably less than it can be bought 
for in the open market. 

There was an increase of 700,000 
pounds of new powder during 1915 
over 1914, due not to increase in the 
powder factory but to improved 
methods of operation. With the new 
nitrating house in full operation the 
output of the Indian Head plant for 
1916 will be about 5,000,000 pounds 
and for the fiscal year 1917 about 
6,000,000 pounds. 

Owing to the abnormal rise in the 
cost of raw materials on account of 
the war, the cost of the powder now 
being manufactured is higher than 
for the last fiscal year, the raw ma- 
terials for which were nearly all 
contracted for before the war. 

The amount of powder delivered 
by the private plants during 1915 
was 3,112,868 pounds, but now, be- 
cause of the increase of powder mak- 
ing facilities at Indian Head, out- 
side contracts have been greatly re- 
duced. At the same time, it is 
recognized that the facilities for the 
production of smokeless powder and 
other explosives in the United States 
enormously increased owing to the 
demands of the belligerents for these 
materials form a naval asset of 
great value. 

PEACE SERVICES 

Of the functions of the Navy in 
time of peace much could be writ- 



ten, but space forbids. Perhaps 

nothing sums its labors up better 
than the words of Mr. Daniels in 
transmitting his report to President 
Wilson. He states that during 1915 
"our ships have charted islands in 
the Caribbean and in Alaskan 
waters. They have been privileged 
to carry thousands of non-com- 
batants from the war zone to places 
of refuge. They have protected 
Americans and American interests 
on the coasts of war-torn Mexico. 
They have afforded a patrol of our 
coasts to preserve neutrality. They 
have carried aid to flood sufferers 
in China and given succor to the 
starving in Samoa. They have 
transported marines to preserve 
peace in the revolutionary period in 
Haiti and have acted as protector 
and custodian of the interests of 
that island in the days of its travail. 
Maneuvers, war games, target prac- 
tice, reviews, have given evidence of 
its readiness and titness. The in- 
crease in its personnel and in their 
training, the improvement in the 
morale of officers and men. and the 
perfection of its organization tell 
the story of a year of effort crowned 
with most gratifying advance. 

"The Navy is strong. It must be 
stronger to justify the confidence the 
country reposes in it ... as the 
first arm of defense of our shores 
and the protection of the liberties 
of our people." 




THE TERRACE AT BANCROFT HAIL, ANNAPOLIS 



CHAPTEK XXIII. 

THE ARMY 

By C. H. CLAUDY 



TEUIUTOKIAI, 



IN its territorial organization tho 
Army is arranged in departments, 

as follows : 

The Eastern Department. — Em- 
bracing the New England States, 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania. Delaware, Maryland, District 
of Columbia, Virginia. West Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, Kentucky, Tennessee. Georgia, 
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, the 
post of Ft. Logan H. Roots, Arkan- 
sas, the Coast Defenses of New Or- 
leans and Galveston, the Panama 
Canal Zone, and the island of Porto 
Rico, with the adjacent islands and 
keys. Headquarters are at Gov- 
ernor's Island, N. Y. 

The Southern Department in- 
cludes the States of Texas (except 
the Coast Defenses of Galveston), 
Louisiana (except the Coast De- 
fenses of New Orleans), Arkansas 
i except the post of Ft. Logan H. 
Roots i, Oklahoma, New Mexico and 
Arizona. Headquarters are at Ft. 
Sam Houston, Texas. 

The Central Department. — Em- 
bracing the States of Ohio, Michi- 
gan, Indiana, Illinois. Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, North Dakota, South 
Dakota. Iowa. Missouri. Kansas, 
Nebraska. Wyoming (except that 
part included in the Yellowstone 
Park). Colorado and the post of Ft. 
Missoula. Mont. Its headquarters 
are at Chicago, 111. 

The Western Department includes 
the States of Washington. Oregon. 



Idaho. Montana (Ft. Missoula ex- 
cepted). Yellowstone Park in Wyo- 
ming, California, Nevada. Utah and 
Alaska. Its headquarters are in 
San Francisco, Cal. 

The Hawaiian Department. — Em- 
bracing the Hawaiian Islands and 
their dependencies. Headcpiarters, 
Honolulu, Hawaii. 

The Philippine Department em- 
braces all the islands of the Philip- 
pine Archipelago, with headquarters 
at Manila, P. I. 

ORGANIZATION 

Internally the Army is divided 
as follows : 

The General Officers. General 
Staff Corps, Adjutant General's De- 
partment, Inspector General's De 
partment, Judge Advocate General's 
Department, Quartermaster Corps, 
Medical Department, Medical Re- 
serve Corps. Dental Corps. Contract 
Surgeons, Corps of Engineers, Ord- 
nance Department, Signal Corps, 
Bureau of Insular Affairs, Chap- 
lains and Military Academy. 

Commands in the field are organ- 
ized as Cavalry, Field Artillery, 
Coast Artillery. Infantry and Phil- 
ippine Scouts. 

On September 20, 1010. there were 
authorized 11 Major Generals and 
.*H) Brigadier Generals, 244 Colonels. 
L'.'ll Lieutenant Colonels. <;r>x Majors. 
2.01)0 Captains. 2,562 First Lieuten- 
ants, 1,369 Second Lieutenants and 
85 Chaplains as officers, a total of 



Copyright by Munii & Co., Inc. 



282 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



7,289 Cor a total authorized strength 
of 117.o:;s enlisted men. 

THE NEW ARMY BILL 

Rut the new Army act of June 
22. 1916, makes changes which will 
be far-reaching in effect, increasing 
the authorized strength to 175,000 
men. 

According to the new law the 
Army of the United States shall con- 
sist of the Regular Army, the Vol- 
unteer Army, the Officers' Reserve 
Corps, the Enlisted Reserve Corps, 
the National Guard while in the 
service of the United States, and 
such other land forces as may be 
authorized by law. 

The Regular Army of the United 
States, including the existing organ- 
izations, is to consist of sixty-four 
regiments of Infantry, twenty-five 
regiments of Cavalry, twenty-one 
regiments of Field Artillery, a Coast 
Artillery Corps, the Brigade, Divi- 
sion. Army Corps and Army Head- 
quarters, with their detachments 
and troops, a General Staff Corps, 



the retired list, additional officers, 
professors. Corps of Cadets, general 
Army service detachment, and de- 
tachments of Cavalry. Field Artil- 
lery and Engineers, and the band 
of the United States Military Acad- 
emy, the post non-commissioned 
staff officers, the recruiting parties, 
the recruit depot detachments and 
unassigned recruits, the service 
school detachments, disciplinary 
guards and disciplinary organiza- 
tions. Indian Scouts, and other offi- 
cers and enlisted men as may be 
provided. 

It is expressly stipulated in the 
new law that the enlisted personnel 
of all organizations of the Regular 
Army shall be at all times main- 
tained at a strength not below the 
legal minimum strength. 

The total enlisted force of the 
Regular Army, excluding the Phil- 
ippine Scouts and the enlisted men 
of the Quartermaster. Medical and 
Signal Corps, and unassigned re- 
cruits, must not, except in actual or 
threatened war. exceed 175.000 men. 



ACTUAL STRENGTH OF THE ENTIRE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT 
JUNE 30, 1916 



Branches of Service 



Officers 


Enlisted Min 


Total 


25 




25 


1,012 


10,896 


11.908 


207 


1,948 


2,155 


778 


14,646 


15,424 


262 


5,664 


5.926 


728 


19,185 


lit. 913 


1,604 


36,123 


ST. 727 




7,303 


7,303 


4,616 


«l.-i.76.-) 


ion. :;m 


182 


5,430 


5.612 


4.79S 


101,195 


105.993 



General officers 

staff corps and departments 

Engineers 

Cavalry 

Field Artillery 

Coast Artillery Corps 

Infantry 

Miscellaneous 

Tui al regular army. 
Philippine scouts 

Aggregate 



.in Adjutant General's Department, 
an Inspector General's Department, 
a Judge Advocate General's Depart- 
ment, a Quartermaster Corps, a 
Medical Department, a Corps of En- 
gineers, an Ordnance Department, a 
Signal Corps, the officers of the Bu- 
reau of Insular Affairs, the Militia 
Bureau, the detached officers, the 
detached non-commissioned officers, 
the Chaplains, the Regular Army 
Reserve, officers and enlisted men on 



1915 STRENGTH 

Bui even before the passage of 

the recent Army lull there was a 
considerable discrepancy between 
what was authorized and what was 
in existence. At the close of the 
fiscal year HM.",. the most recent date 
for which a report is available, 
there were appropriations available 
for the maintenance of an Aran 
and all of the accessory employee- 
aggregating 5,023 officers and 102. 



■_'N| 



>Mlt I'ur.XTKV AND ITS RESOURCES 



985 enlisted men. Of these 67,000 
men were mobile army troops, 20,- 

000 coast defense troops, and the 
balance Hospital Corps, quartermas- 
ter men and other employees. Of 
this total number, about 29,000 were 
on service outside continental 
United States, leaving about 46,000 
mobile army troops and about 13,000 
const defense troops within our 
borders. 

The actual strength of the entire 
military establishment on June .*!(), 
1915, by branches of service, is 
shown in the table on page 282. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Prior to the Spanish War the 
United States kept its Army at 
home, with the exception of a few 
officers and men opening up com- 
munication in Alaska and in foreign 
diplomatic service. How becoming 
a world power affects Army life is 
well shown in the accompanying 
table. 



ors. miscellaneous public works, etc. ; 
$45,092,760.02 for rivers and har- 
bors, and the balance, $111,744,185.95, 
for military purposes, including the 
support of the Army. Military Acad- 
emy, militia, fortifications, arsenals, 
military posts and miscellaneous 
items. 

The various items, showing ex- 
penditures for "linn and authorized 
for 1916, are shown in the table on 
the next page. 

KM.ISTMEXTS 

Perhaps nothing in the new Army 

bill is of greater importance than 
the sections referring to enlistments 
and reserve. Hitherto enlistments 
have been for three years. Now 
they are to be for seven years, three 
in active service and four in the 
reserve. There is also a provision. 
designed to attract capable men who 
do not desire so long an active serv- 
ice, that an enlisted man serving a 
year honorably may, on the recom- 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY 



Geographical Distribution 


Officers 


Enlisted Men 


Total 




3,502 

23 

455 
182 

45 

37 

322 

192 

40 


64,756 

747 

12,454 
5,430 
1,361 
670 
9,199 
6,151 

427 


6S, 258 




770 


1 n i he Philippine [stands: 


12,909 




5,612 




1 . 106 




707 


In the Isthmian Canal zone 

Troops en route and officers at other for- 


9,521 
6,343 

467 






Total. 


1,798 


101,195 


105,993 







APPROPRIATION 
The expenditures by the War De- 
partment for all purposes during the 
fiscal year 1915 amounted to $166,- 
355,172.99. Of this amount, $9,518,- 
227.02 was for the civil establish- 
ment, that is, maintenance of the 
War Departmenl as an Executive 
Department, buildings and grounds 

in and .around Washington, national 
and military parks, monuments, na- 
tional cemeteries, support of national 
homes for disabled soldiers and sail- 



mendation of certain superior offi- 
cers and at the discretion of the 
Secretary of War, be furloughed to 
the Regular Army Reserve. 

To further enlistments the Presi- 
dent is authorized to utilize the 
services of postmasters of the sec- 
ond, third and fourth classes in pro- 
curing recruits for the Army. For 
each recruit secured by a postmas- 
ter, who is accepted for enlistment, 
the postmaster is to receive $5. 

In addition to military training, 



TIIK ARMY 



285 



EXPENDITURES FOR l«»15 AND APPROPRIATION FOR L916 



Civil establishment (War Department proper). 

Salaries, contingent expenses, etc. (including 

office of public buildings and grounds) 

Civil public works and miscellaneous (exclusive of 
rivers and harbors) : 

Military and national parks 

Buildings and grounds in and around Washington 

National cemeteries 

Miscellaneous objects 

National homo for disabled volunteer soldiers . . . 

Miscellaneous relief acts, etc 

Total civil establishment 

Military establishment: 

Support of the army 

Military academy 

Militia 

Fortifications 

Arsenals 

Military posts and miscellaneous 

Total military establishment 

Rivers and harbors 

Grand total 



Expenditures 

for the fiscal 

vear ended 

June 30, 1915 



$1,897,151.91 



587,560.14 
373,950.81 
328,912.21 
955,170.07 
4.193,665.65 
1,181,816.23 



.518.227.02 



$98,076,645.78 

996,035 . 84 

5,007,814.98 

6,300,355 . 59 

481,096.19 

882,237 . 57 



$111,744,185.95 

45,092,760.02 



$160,355,172.99 



Appropriations 
for the fiscal 
year ending 

.lime 30, 1916 



$1,925,598.00 



407,060.00 
314,490.00 
312,070.00 
379,760 . 00 
4,931,009.50 
1,973,471 20 



510,243,458.70 



$96,519,195.87 

1,069,813.37 

5,440,000.00 

6,060,216.90 

653,600.00 

570,924 . 99 



110,313,751.13 
33,989,811.64 



8154,547,021.47 



soldiers in active service will here- 
after be given the opportunity to 
study and receive instruction upon 
educational lines to increase their 
military efficiency and enable them 
to return to civil life better equipped 
for either industry or general busi- 
ness. Civilian teachers are to be 
employed to aid Army officers in 
such instruction, and "part may con- 
sist of vocational education either 
in agriculture or the mechanic arts." 

PAY OF ENLISTED MEN 

The monthly pay of eidisted men 
is provided for rather liberally. Of 
course, clothes, medical and dental 
attention, quarters and rations are 
furnished in addition to the follow- 
ing monthly pay: 

Quartermaster sergeant, senior 
grade, Quartermaster Corps ; mas- 
ter hospital sergeant, Medical De- 
partment ; master engineer, senior 
grade, Corps of Engineers ; and band 
leader, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery 
and Corps of Engineers, $75. Hos- 
pital sergeant. Medical Department ; 



and master engineer, junior grade, 
Corps of Engineers. $65. Sergeant, 
first class, Medical Department. $50. 
Sergeant, first class, Corps of Engi- 
neers ; regimental supply sergeant, 
Infantry, Cavalry. Field Artillery 
and Corps of Engineers ; battalion 
supply sergeant. Corps of Engi- 
neers ; and assistant engineer, Coast 
Artillery Corps, $45. Assistant band 
leader, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery 
and Corps of Engineers; and ser- 
geant bugler, Infantry, Cavalry, Ar- 
tillery and Corps of Engineers, $40. 
Musician, first class, Infantry, Cav- 
alry, Artillery and Corps of Engi- 
neers ; supply sergeant, mess ser- 
geant and stable sergeant, Corps of 
Engineers ; sergeant, Medical De- 
partment, $30; supply sergeant. In- 
fantry. Cavalry and Artillery ; mess 
sergeant, Infantry, Cavalry and Ar- 
tillery; cook, Medical Department; 
horseshoer, Infantry. Cavalry and 
Artillery. Corps of Engineers, Signal 
Corps and Medical Department; 
stable sergeant, Infantry and Cav- 
alry; radio sergeant, Coast Artillery 



286 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Corps; and musicians, second class, 
Infantry, Cavalry. Artillery and 
Cor] is of Engineers, $30. Musician, 
third class. Infantry, Cavalry. Ar- 
tillery and Corps of Engineers ; cor- 
poral, Medical I >epartment, $24. Sad- 
dler, Infantry, Cavalry, Field Artil- 
lery, Corps of Engineers and Medical 
Department ; mechanic, Infantry. 
Cavalry and Field Artillery and Med- 
ical Department ; farrier. Medical De- 
partment ; and wagoner. Infantry, 
Field Artillery and Corps of Engi- 
neers, $21. Private, first class. In- 
fantry, Cavalry, Artillery and Med- 
ical Department, $18. Private, Med- 
ical Department, and bugler, $15. 

LOSSES 

With the prospect of so great an 
increase in enlistment as the new 
bill calls for. it is natural to in- 
quire, first, what the general loss 
to the Army may be, and, second, 
if existing methods of recruiting, 
even with the help of postmasters, 
will serve. 

Enlisted men of the Regular 
Array, to the number of 27,020, were 
discharged upon expiration of serv- 
ice during the year ending June 30, 
1915. During the preceding year the 
number of discharges upon expira- 
tion of service was 25,027, and dur- 
ing 1913 it was 12,095. These num- 
bers are, respectively, 19.7, 20, 11.3 
per cent of the whole number of 
enlisted men in service or of en- 
listment contracts in force during 
these years. 

Losses from all causes other than 
expiration of service in 1915 num- 
bered 14.517. During the preceding 
year the losses were 12.4S7, and 
(luring 1913 they were 13,254. These 
numbers are, respectively, 10.6, 9.97 
and 12.4 per cent of the whole num- 
ber of enlisted contracts in force 
during these years. 

The desertions from the Army 
during the year ending June .".0. 
1915, aggregated 4,435. which is ,",.23 
per cent of the whole 1 Dumber of 
enlistment contracts in force. This 
is a slight increase over the per- 
centage (3.10) for 1914. The num- 



ber of desertions during the year 
1915 is 553 greater than the number 
reported during 1914, but 16 less 
than the number reported in 1913. 
The increase in the number of deser- 
tions over that for 1914 is natural, 
because the number of enlistment 
contracts in force during 1915 is 
12,007 greater than in 1914. The 
increase in desertions is due in part 
to the fact that there were nearly 
1,800 more original enlistments in 
1915 than in 11)14, it being a well 
known fact that desertions are fre- 
quent during the early periods of 
service. 

ENLISTMENT METHODS 

Recruiting officers at stations re- 
port whether applications for enlist- 
ment are the result, wholly or in 
part, of any form of advertising. 
The result of each of the several 
methods of advertising during the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1915, is 
given on the second page following. 

RECRUITING FOR THE ARMY 

The general recruiting detail at 
the beginning of the fiscal year 1915 
consisted of 129 commissioned offi- 
cers and 831 enlisted men. At the 
end of that year the detail consisted 
of 124 officers and 636 enlisted men. 
Sixty-five officers are regularly on 
duty at general recruit depots and 
59 officers on duty at recruiting 
stations. 

Within the year enlistments and 
re-enlistments numbered 48,813, in- 
cluding 44.427 for the line of the 
Army, 1,031 for the Hospital Corps, 
1,096 for the Quartermaster Corps, 
834 for other staff departments, and 
1,425 for the Philippine Scouts. The 
enlistments numbered 31.939, of 
whom 4.795 had former service. Of 
these enlistments. 30.342 (4.2."5 with 
former service) were for the line of 
the Army, 33!) (120 with former 
service) for the Hospital Corps, 175 
(139 with former service) for the 
Quartermaster Corps. 284 (78 with 
former service) for other staff de- 
partments, and 700 (203 with for- 
mer service) for the Philippine 



288 



OUR rorxTRY AND its resources 



ENLISTMENTS THROUGH ADVERTISEMENT 



Methods of Advertising 



Sight of recruiting flag and station 

Recruiting poster 

In parks and squares 

Canvass by recruiting parties 

Recruiting circulars 

Recruiting booklet 

Special circulars issued by recruiting parties 

Newspaper advertising 

Handbills 

Advertising cards 

Electric recruiting sign (2 districts) 

Personal letters from recruiting officers 

Baseball team (1 district) 

News items in newspapers 

Photographs (1 district, July, August and September) 
Postal cards 

Total 

Not the result of advertising 

Total number of applicants reported upon 



Number of 
Applications 



64,703 

28.197 

22,589 

11,900 

11.011 

5,792 

5,341 

4,159 

3,734 

905 

696 

545 

435 

139 

135 

41 



160,922 
6,575 



167,497 



Scouts. The re-enlistments for the 
line of the Army numbered 14,085, 
for the Hospital Corps 692, for the 
Quartermaster Corps 921, for other 
staff departments 550, and for the 
Philippine Scouts G2G; in all, 10,874. 

It should be noted that the Army 
is very particular about men it ac- 
cepts for enlistment. The total num- 
ber of enlistments (48,813) for 1915 
does not show that 130,200 men who 
applied were rejected for one cause 
or another — minority, small size, 
aliens, illiteracy, disease, imperfect 
physique, etc. 

With so satisfactory a condition 
existing and with the new induce- 
ments provided, it is not felt that 
any special difficulty will obtain in 
recruiting 175.000 men in a reason- 
able period. 

RESERVE 

The new enlistment law must 
necessarily operate to procure an 
Army Reserve of no mean propor- 
tions within a very few years. Ac- 
cording to the new law, this Reserve 
is to consist of all the enlisted men 
in the Reserve at the time the act 
was passed (a number so small as 
to be disregarded), all enlisted men 
who sign for seven years and serve 
three honorably, such men as may 



be furloughed into the Reserve be- 
fore completing three years' active 
service, and all who hold an honor- 
able discharge from the Army, with 
good character, are yet physically 
qualified and not over forty-five 
years old, who may enlist in the 
Reserve. 

Reservists of the Army receive $24 
a year in time of peace; if mobilized, 
the Reservist takes status of a regu- 
lar enlisted man and pay as such. 
But in addition, on reporting phy- 
sically fit for duty, a called-out Re- 
servist will receive $3 for each 
month he has belonged to the Re- 
serve, as well as transportation and 
subsistence from home to mobiliza- 
tion point. 

To secure a Reserve of officers 
available for service in the Army, 
as officers of the Quartermaster 
Corps and other staff corps and de- 
partments, as officers for recruit ren- 
dezvous and depots, ami as officers 
of volunteers, there is organized an 
Officers' Reserve ('or] >s. Members 
of the Officers' Reserve Corps are 
not subject to call for service in 
time of peace. 

The President is authorized to ap- 
point and commission as Reserve 
officers in all grades up to and in- 
cluding that of major, such citizens 



THE ARMY 



289 



as are found qualified to hold such 
coin missions. 

ORGANIZED MILITIA 

The Organized Militia in the va- 
rious States according to the latest 



returns had a reported strength of 
8,705 commissioned officers and 120,- 
693 enlisted men. Of this force. 
1,406 officers and 5,446 enlisted men 
belong to the staff and non-com- 
batant branches, 440 officers and 




THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY SMALL ARMS 
1, Old matchlock arquebuse. 2, Pistol showing wheel lock. 3, Flintlock musketoon. 4, 
American or squirrel rifle. 5, American flintlock army rifle of 1815. 6, Springfield rifle, 
1863. 7, Breech loading American army musket, 1824. 8, Sharp breech loading carbine, 
1852. 9, The Burnside carbine, a Civil War weapon. 10, Spencer repeating breech loading 
gun of 1860. 11, Henry magazine breech loading musket, 1860. 12, The Allin alteration 
Springfield rifle, 1865. 13, The English Snider alteration. 14, Springfield rifle, 1873. 
15, English, Martini-Henry rifle. 16, Prussian needle gun. 17, French Chassepot. 18, 1 
French Lebel rifle of 1893. 19, English Lee-Enfield, 1903. 20, Late model of German 
Mauser. 21, Austrian Mannlicher. 22, Latest Mauser model, used by Japan. 23, 1902 
and 1908 Krag-Jorgensen, used by the United States, 24, Latest American military rifle. 



290 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



7,438 enlisted men belong to the 
Coast Artillery, and 6,859 officers 
and 107,809 enlisted men to the 
mobile branches (Engineers, Field 
Artillery. Cavalry and Infantry). 
The mobile troops, with auxiliary 
forces, are organized into twelve tac- 
tical divisions. The National Guard 
of New York in its organization is 
the closest approximation to a com- 
plete divisional unit. 

On a divisional basis there is an 
excess of Infantry units equivalent 
to 23 regiments, and a deficiency in 
necessary elements as follows 
(1915) : 

48 Troops Cavalry. 

74 Batteries Field Artillery. 

88 Companies Machine Guns. 

5 2/3 Battalions Engineers. 

2 Battalions Signal Corps. 

8 Field Hospitals. 

20 Ambulance Companies. 

11 Medical Supply Detachments. 

13 Sanitary Detachments. 

In connection with this part of 
what would be a volunteer army 
in time of war it is interesting to 
note the issue of rifles to rifle clubs 
and schools. Since the provisions 
of the Act of Congress of 1914 have 
been put into effect, 1.780 rifles and 
1,440,500 rounds of ammunition have 
been issued to 201 rifle clubs, of 
which 195 drew both rifles and am- 
munition, 05 ammunition only, and 
1 rifles only. Twenty schools have 
taken advantage of this act and 
have drawn 1,015 rifles, 022 car- 
bines, and 118.400 rounds of am- 
munition. The rifles are of the model 
of 1898; the carbines of the model 
of 1899 (both Krag-Jorgensens). 
The War Department has en- 
deavored to make it as easy as 
possible for the clubs and schools 
to obtain arms and ammunition 
under the provisions of this act. 

AERONAUTICS 

It is impossible in a short sketch 
of this kind to take up and epi- 
tomize the work of all the various 
arms of the service. The Army or- 
ganization is too vast a machine and 
its activities too great to permit 
brief treatment. Tts own yearly 
reports require three large volumes 



of a thousand pages each, not to 
mention the thousands of documents 
and orders continually issued. 

But the aeronautical work of the 
Signal Corps is too vital to be 
omitted. 

There is no blinking the fact that 
up to the present the United States, 
the cradle of aviation, has been most 
laggard in Army development of fly- 
ing, and this in spite of the fact 
that it was the Signal Corps trials 
of 1908 and 1909 which established 
the heavier-than-air machine as a 
factor in warfare. 

The Signal Corps possesses an 
Aviation School on North Island. 
San Diego Bay, which is divided 
into two main departments — the 
training and the experimental and 
repair department. The former is 
devoted to the training of student 
officers for junior military aviators, 
the instruction of enlisted men in 
flying, and the training of suitable 
enlisted men for aviation mechani- 
cians. The officers are given theo- 
retical and practical courses in the 
art of flying; in the construction, 
operation and repair of aeroplanes 
and aeronautical motors ; in meteor- 
ology, and in the navigation of the 
air. ' Enlisted men on flying duty 
are instructed in the art of flying 
and in the operation and care of 
aeroplanes and motors. Aviation 
mechanicians are trained to repair 
aeroplanes and motors by a thorough 
shop course. The personnel of the 
training course consists of the offi- 
cers assigned as instructors, two ex- 
pert civilian instructors in flying, 
and an expert civilian instructor on 
motors. 

The experimental and repair de- 
partment is composed of the officer 
in charge, an aeronautical engineer, 
an aeronautical mechanical engi- 
neer, and five civilian aviation 
mechanicians. It is charged with 
the conduct of experiments pertain- 
ing to machines, motors and appur- 
tenances, the study of new types. 
and the repair and reconstruction of 
aeroplanes and motors. 



THE ARMY 



291 



During the year 3,458 flights of 
a total duration of 1,269 hours and 
50 minutes were made and 1,730 
passengers carried. 

The most important thing which 
militated against military aviation 
was lack of men. The new law is 
liberal with the aviation section of 
the Signal Corps, providing for one 
colonel, one lieutenant-colonel, eight 
majors, twenty-four captains, and 
114 first lieutenants, to be selected 
from among officers of the Army at 
large of corresponding grades or 
from among officers of the grade 
below who are qualified as military 
aviators. 

Special inducements as to pay and 
privileges are offered aviation offi- 



cers and the bars have been taken 
down for the married men and those 
over thirty years of age. It has 
been a vital necessity, for the United 
States has hardly 100 trained aero- 
plane pilots, both military and 
civilian. England and France have 
each over 3,000. 

It is a fact that the new law and 
enlarged appropriation ($13,280,000 
plus two items of $300,000 for the 
purchase of sites for aeronautical 
stations) should go far, even if not 
the whole way, in providing our 
Army with capable aerial eyes in 
sufficient numbers to place the na- 
tion which invented the flying ma- 
chine at least on a par with any 
enemy likely to confront it. 




The Lewis Gun (top) 



The Maxim Gun The Benet.Mercier Gun (bottom) 

MODERN MACHINE GUNS 




Punching holes in packages of 

bills 

Receiving the bills 



The top of the macerator 
The macerator in action 
Cutting the bills in two 



DESTRUCTION OF OLD MONEY 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



UNCLE SAM'S MONEY 



Part I.— THE TREASURY 



TO the casual visitor at Wash- 
ington, the Treasury is, out- 
side, a beautiful example of 
architecture and, inside, a bewilder- 
ing succession of offices, vaults, 
cages and rooms with people and 
money in them. He is taken by a 
guide to view monetary exhibits 




$76,640,000 ON THE SHELVES IN ONE 
BIN AT THE TREASURY 

which pass his comprehension, per- 
haps sees the interior of a vault 
with more wealth than Midas ever 
dreamed of, and leaves with the 
confused impression that his Uncle 
Samuel is very rich indeed, but 



seems to need a lot of people and 
paraphernalia to take care of his 
cash ! 

As a matter of fact, the activities 
of the Treasury Department are so 
varied and so numerous that only 
by a careful study of the laws under 
which it operates or a reading of its 
huge reports can any adequate idea 
be gained of its work. As for Uncle 
Sam's money and the way it is taken 
care of, it may fairly be stated that 
no visitor to the Treasury really 
gets any adequate idea. 

For instance, how much money is 
there in the United States? Not 
wealth — money and wealth are en- 
tirely different. How many people, 
uninformed, will guess that, if the 
United States had to depend only 
on its money, and not at all on its 
wealth, it could pay its own ex- 
penses but for two years before 
going broke? Yet such is the case. 

The general stock of money in the 
United States June 30, 1915, was 
$3,989,400,000. Of the total stock, 
$420,200,000, or 10.53 per cent, was 
in the Treasury as assets. Coin and 
other money in national and other 
reporting banks, exclusive of those 
in the island possessions, amounted 
to $1,448,600,000, and. including 
$312,100,000 cash in Federal Reserve 
Banks, the sum of $1,760,700,000, or 
44.14 per cent of the total stock of 
money, was held bv banks, the re- 
maining $1,808,500,000, or 45.33 per 
cent, being outside of the Treasury 
and banks. The amount in circula- 
tion, exclusive of coin and other 



Copyright by Munn & Co., lue. 



294 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



monev in the Treasury as assets, 
is $3,*569,200,000, or $35.44 per cap- 
ita, an increase of $107,200,000 and a 
per capita increase of $1.09 over 1914. 

The accompanying table shows 
how this money is distributed. 

Of the total money in circulation, 
$1,002,981,438 is in sold coin and 
certificates, $414,961,5S3 is United 
States notes, Treasury notes and 
Federal Reserve notes, $785,393,047 
is in National Bank notes and $705,- 
S83,506 in silver coin and certifi- 
cates. Thus nearly half (40.59 per 
cent) of our money in circulation 
is gold or its representative. 




THE WEALTH OF G0LC0NDA IN A 

TREASURY VAULT— BILLS 

AND COIN 



Except on the Pacific roast, where 
coin is still preferred to paper, the 
bulk of all monetary transactions of 
ordinary life is accomplished with 
gold or silver certificates, bank 
notes or the like. Held in some 
suspicion when first authorized 
(February 25, 1862), the familiar 
"greenback" is in the public mind 
to-day "as good as gold," even 
though it be but a silver certificate. 
For the people know that for every 



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©©©©©©©©©© 



UNCLE SAM'S MONEY 



295 



greenback in their hands, calling for 
a silver dollar, there actually is a 
silver dollar waiting for them — or 
for whoever calls with the "bill" to 
ask for it — in the vaults at Wash- 
ington. 

In the first years of the war, 
when the "greenbacks" were first 
made legal, the total amount au- 
thorized was $450,000,000 ; the high- 
est amount outstanding at any time 
was $449,338,902, on January 30, 
1864. 



The United States notes issued 
and redeemed, by denominations, 
during the fiscal year 1915, are set 
out in the table on page 296. 

It must not be supposed, however, 
that this sum, in circulation and 
constantly redeemed and reissued, 
forms the bulk of the redemption 
work done at the Treasury. Na- 
tional Banks issue notes which have 
to be redeemed, and the size of this 
financial undertaking may be im- 
agined when it is stated that the 




COUNTING COINS BY MACHINES 



By the canceling and retiring of 
these notes as they were received in 
the Treasury, the amount outstand- 
ing was reduced more than $100,- 
000,000 when the process was 
stopped in 1878, Congress requiring 
the notes to be reissued when re- 
deemed. At that time the amount 
outstanding was $346,681,016, and it 
has not been changed since. 



money received by the National 
Bank Redemption Agency during 
1915 was $782,633,567, the largest 
for any year, and an increase of 
$75,S76',965 over 1914. Of the amount 
received, 46.53 per cent came from 
banks located in New York City. 
The number of packages was 45,532, 
containing 76,287,975 notes, with an 
average value of $10.03. 



296 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Payments for notes redeemed was 
made as follows : By Treasurer's 
checks, $122,230,578; by remittances 
of now United States currency, 
$307,667,490, and gold, silver and 
minor coin, $28,220; and by credit 
of $340,482,729 in various accounts. 
The notes assorted and delivered 
amounted to $764,926,023, of which 
sum $130,389,450, or 17.05 per cent, 
was fit for use and was returned 
to banks of issue in 92,952 packages. 
The remainder, $034,536,573, or 
82.95 per cent, was delivered to the 
Comptroller of the Currency, $330,- 
110,347.50 in 191,068 packages, as 
unfit for use, to be destroyed and 
replaced by new notes sent to the 
banks of issue, and $304,426,225.50, 
in !'.">. s::o packages, for destruction 
and retirement from circulation 
against deposits for that purpose. 

Securities to lie destroyed are de- 
livered to the so-called destruction 
committee, composed of representa- 
tives from the Secretary's Office and 
from fiscal bureaus concerned. Some 
idea of the amount of work handled 
by this committee may be had from 
the fact that during the year just 
closed 377,364,188 redeemed notes 
(paper money) of a nominal value 
of $1,541,131,111, were destroyed, as 
well as large quantities of other 
securities. 

Securities to be destroyed are 
counted, the count verified, the paper 



cut in pieces or punched and the 
pieces then fed to a macerating ma- 
chine, which, with water and pow ? er, 
makes a pulp of what once was 
money, which is largely used by 
souvenir makers to construct memen- 
toes of Washington ! 

But a "bill" is not destroyed with- 
out cause. Formerly any soiled or 
creased bill sent in was condemned, 
a new one put in its place, and the 
old one destroyed. Now. however. 
Uncle Sam has a wonderful money- 
laundering machine which washes, 
resizes, dries and irons out paper 
currency unfit for circulation but 
not yet torn or badly worn. The 
result is a "bill" hardly to be told 
from new. There are laundering 
machines at Washington and at the 
sub-treasuries at New York, Phila- 
delphia and Chicago. 

Naturally, it takes fine paper to 
stand washing — and, indeed, no finer 
paper than that used for "green- 
backs" can be bought. 

The paper is made by a secret 
process under Treasury supervision 
by annual contract under competi- 
tive bids. 

The Bureau of Engraving and 
Printing, a branch of the depart- 
ment, designs, under the direction 
of the Secretary, engraves and prints 
the notes and certificates complete. 
This currency is delivered to the 
Treasurer in packages of 4,000 notes, 



I'MTED STATES NOTES ISSUED AND REDEEMED 



Denominations 



Outstanding 
June 30, 1914 



One dollar 

Two dollars 

Five dollars 

Ten dollars 

Twenty dollars 

Fifty dollars 

< »ne hundred dollars. . 
Five hundred dollars. 
One thousand dollars. 
Five thousand dollars. 
Ten thousand dollars 



Total 

Unknown, destroyed. 



Net 



l 
202 

93 
8 
1 
3 
3 

29 



823 

307 

99e 

753 
470 
,690 

77:> 
,867 
,927 



218 
225 
730 
256 
812 
.275 
000 
500 
in to 



1(1,000 



347,681,016 
l ,000,000 



Fiscal Year. 1915 



Issued 



1103,580,000 
52,880,000 

SSI). I KM) 

600,000 

50,666 

2,000,000 



159,990,000 



346,681,016 I 159.9tio.ooo 



Redeemed 



Outstanding 
.Time 30, 1915 



S3, 678 

3,612 

104.453,570 

38,675,260 

1,258,180 
259,900 
791,300 

1,168.500 
13,376,000 



159,990,000 



159.990.000 



SI ,819,541 

1,363,612 

202.123,160 

107,957,996 

8.092,632 

2,030,375 

2,983,700 

2,749,000 

18,551.000 

10,000 

347.681,016 
1,000,000 



346.681.016 



UNCLE SAMS MONEt 



291 



the product of 1.000 sheets of paper. 
Such a package is taken as the unit 
from which to reckon the cost. 

Allowing for every item of ex- 
pense attending making, issuing and 
the redeeming of paper currency, 
the average cost is as follows : 

Total average expense of 4,000 

notes issued $52.50 

Total average expense of 4,000 

notes redeemed 8.54 

Aggregate average expense of 

issue and redemption $01.04 



"greenback" into circulation. And 
it is staggering to find the total cost 
for redemption of 299,455,985 pieces, 
and issuing of 2S0,174,317 pieces 
(1915) to total $4,316,626.44 in this 
year. 

But a curious little fact commends 
itself to the thoughtful. Though it 
costs this sum to issue and redeem 
paper currency, that sum is more 
than saved by the prevention of 
abrasion of gold and silver coin. 
If we had not the notes, we would 




THE BILL WASHING MACHINE ALWAYS ATTRACTS ATTENTION AND IS 
FREQUENTLY LOANED TO EXPOSITIONS 



It is interesting in this connection 
to know that the life of a United 
States one dollar note averages 3.14 
years, while the five dollar note av- 
erages 2.73 years. The average life 
of all denominations of United 
States notes is 3.22 years. 

It actually costs the Government, 
then, about 1.526 tents to put a 



use the coin. The Government saves 
the loss by abrasion by letting paper 
be "abraded" and keeping the coin 
in its vaults. Think it over ! 

With all his multitudinous activi- 
ties, and the huge sums of income 
and outgo with which he deals. 
Uncle Sam has so modern and accu- 
rate a system of bookkeeping that 



298 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



he knows every day just where he 
stands. And curious though it may 
seem, his whole balance sheet may 
he written on a page smaller than 
that required for the same informa- 
tion of many a big private industry. 



Below is a condensed balance sheet, 
showing just where Uncle Sam's 
money comes from, when it arrives 
in the Treasury, and just where it 
goes to when it is paid out. The 
sheet covers years 1914 and 1915. 



RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE FISCAL YEARS, 1914 AND 1915 



Account 



Receipts 

Customs 

Internal revenue: 

Ordinary 

Corporation and in- 
come tax 

Lands 

Miscellaneous 

Receipts of the District 

of Columbia 



Total 

Deduct moneys covered 
by warrant in year 
subsequent to the de- 
posit thereof 



S292, 320,014. 51 

308,659,732.56 

71,381,274.74 

2,571.774 77 

50,855,941.14 

8,752,937.11 



734,541,674.83 



505,970.59 



Total 

Add moneys received in 
fiscal year but not 
covered by warrant 



Net available . . . 
Disbursements 

Legislative 

Executive 

State Department 

Treasury Department 

War Department, civil. 

Navy Department, civil. 

Interior, civil 

Post Office Department 

proper 

Postal deficiencies. . . . 

Department of Agricul- 
ture 

Department of Com- 
merce 

Department of Labor. . . 

I h-part merit of Justice. . 

Independent offices .... 

District of Columbia. . . 



734,035,704.24 



637,462.47 



734,673,166.71 



Total civil and mis 
cellaneous 

Military Establishment . 
including rivers and 
harbors 

Naval Establishment 

Indian Service 

Pensions 

Interest on the public 
debt 



Total ordinary dis 
luirsements. . . . 

Net 

Surplus 

Deficit 



13,468 

564 

5,253 

60,139 

2,237 

860 

22,656 



827 . 66 
134.36 
911.78 
856 . 78 
069.37 
,873.02 
,130.62 



1915 



;209,786,672.21 

335,467,887.14 

80,201,758.86 

2,167,136.47 

59,441,800.12 

9,790,474.18 



$26,808,154.58 
8,820,484.12 



696,855,728.98 



637,462.47 



696,218,266.51 



1,692,561 .0; 



Increase 



SS2,533,342.30 



8,585.^58.98 
1,037,537.07 



45,252,034.75 



131,491. SS 



45,120,542.87 



1,055,098.60 



2,236,202.24 



22,208,141.12 

10,958,882.40 
3,768,904.05 

10,188,151.26 
3,232.179 61 

12,756,971.18 



170.530,235.45 



173,522,804 20 

L39.682.186 28 

20,215,075.96 

173,440,231 li-' 

22,863,956.70 



697,910,827.58 

13,577,399.19 
3,065,880.50 
4,908,606.79 

71.107,291.59 

2.215.535.19 

885,870.15 

29,069,642.99 

1,894,873.64 
6,636,592.60 

29,131,112.07 

11,499,098.76 
3,783,611.86 

10,434,871.97 
5,738.773 7S 

13.220.662.97 



108,571.53 
2,501,746.14 



Decrease 



404,638.30 



32,937.980.60 



82,937,980.60 



36.762,339.13 



10, 967. 434. SI 



24,997.13 
6,413,512.37 



700,254, 489 7 1 



34,418,677.00 



207,169,824.05 



172,973.091 .73 

141,835,653.98 

22,130,350.70 

164,387. '.Ml r,| 

22,902.s'.i7 (M 



731,399,759.11 



33,488.931.53 



6,636,592.60 

6,922,970.95 

540,216.36 

14.707 81 

246.720 71 

2,506,594.17 

463,691.79 



37.3 17,756.37 



2,153.467.70 
1,915,274.74 



38,940 . 34 



41,455,439.15 
31,145,269.40 



345,304.99 
' 21,534.1.8 



341.32S.60 



708,167.77 



549,712.47 



9,052,289.51 



10,310,169.75 



Part II. 



THE BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING 

By Hon. JOSEPH E. RALPH, Director 



THE Bureau of Engraving and 
Printing was organized under 
act of July 11, 1862, and its 
first work was an attempt to apply 
machinery to the trimming and sep- 
arating of Treasury notes, such 
notes having been printed by private 
bank note companies and then for- 
warded to Washington for signature 
of the Register of the Treasury, and 
the Treasurer of the United States. 
This work, however, soon became 
physically impossible for these offi- 
cers to perform and a large corps of 
clerks was employed for this pur- 
pose. This was very expensive, and 
to obviate it authority was granted 
by Congress to have these signatures 
engraved in the plates and the seal 
of the Treasury imprinted on the 
notes, and steps were taken to pro- 
cure the necessary machinery to per- 
form this work of sealing in the 
Treasury Department. 

Following the successful execution 
of this work, it was determined that 
an effort should be made to per- 
form, under official supervision, the 
entire mechanical work upon United 
States securities, and authority 
therefor was granted by the act of 
July 11, 1S62, which authorized the 
Secretary of the Treasury, in case 
he deemed it inexpedient to procure 
such notes by contract, to cause them 
to be engraved, printed and executed 
at the Treasury Department, and as 
prior to the passage of this act none 
of the public securities had been en- 
graved or printed otherwise than by 
private contract, this act may be re- 



garded as the organic act. of the 
Bureau of Engraving and Printing. 

From time to time following this 
date the work done by private com- 
panies was gradually absorbed by 
the bureau until all of the printing 
of the securities of the Government 
was done at that bureau, and the last 
work taken over by it from private 
contractors was the printing of the 
postage stamps which the bureau 
undertook in 1S94. 

The bureau is the Government fac- 
tory for producing its paper money, 
bonds, revenue, postage and custom 
stamps, checks, drafts and all im- 
portant documents printed from en- 
graved plates. The output in the 
fiscal year just ended, June 30, 1916, 
had a value of approximately 3% 
billions of dollars. 

Putting it in a more concrete form, 
the daily output of United States 
notes, gold and silver certificates and 
National bank notes, is two and one- 
quarter million notes, having a face 
value of nine million dollars, and 
weighing over three and one-half 
tons. If laid out flat they would 
cover nine acres, and if placed end 
to end the daily output would make 
a chain two hundred and fifty miles 
long. 

Each day forty million postage 
stamps are manufactured, which 
would cover approximately seven 
acres, or make a chain of stamps 
six hundred and twenty miles long. 
The value of each day's output is 
nearly seven hundred and fifty thou- 
sand dollars. Six hundred em- 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



;;<iii 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



ployees are engaged in their manu- 
facture. Fifty-one different kinds of 
postage stamps in denominations 
from one cent to five dollars are 
made for the United States and its 
insular possessions. They are print- 
ed in fifteen distinctive colors. 

Another important part of the Bu- 
reau's work is internal revenue 
stamps, through which an annual in- 
come of over five hundred million 
dollars is collected for Uncle Sam. 
These stamps are of larger sizes 
than postage stamps and while the 
daily output is only twenty million 
stamps, they would cover twenty 
acres if spread out in single sheets 
and weigh six and one-half tons. 
More than three hundred different 
varieties are issued. 

It is a noteworthy fact that such 
enormous quantities of securities are 
produced year after year at this es- 
tablishment without the loss of one 
cent to the Government, and is a 
testimonial to the integrity and abil- 
ity of the employees, not one of 
whom is bonded, as well as to the 
efficiency of the system under which 
they operate. Be it further said to 
the credit of these employees that 
not one has ever engaged in the 
counterfeiting of the securities man- 
ufactured by this bureau. 

The bureau employs the most ex- 
pert designers, engravers, plate 
printers and other artisans requisite 
to a large plate printing establish- 
ment, several of whom entered its 
service during the Civil War shortly 
after the bureau was organized, and 
Avho are capably occupying positions 
of trust and responsibility. 

The number of employees in the 
bureau engaged in the making of 
paper money is 2,800; in making 
postage stamps, 600; in making rev- 
enue stamps, 600, and about 100 in 
making bonds, checks, Commissions 
and various other classes of work: 
the total Dumber of employees be- 
ing 1,100; 2,200 of whom are fe- 
males. The maximum and minimum 
salaries of males is $6,600 and $320, 
respectively, per annum, and of fe- 



males, $2,100 and $300, respectively, 
per annum. 

An idea of the business growth of 
the United States may be gleaned 
from the fact that the Government 
Bureau of Engraving and Printing 
delivered 11,771,2S3,150 perfect pos- 
tage stamps during the fiscal year 
1916. The paper required for this 
work amounted to 1,100,000 pounds, 
and to make this paper 4,500 large 
pine trees were ground to a pulp. 

Had these trees been converted 
into lumber, 85 well-appointed bung- 
alows could have been built. The 
paper itself would make an edition 
of 3,500,000 twelve-page seven-col- 
umn newspapers. As the stamps 
were printed from intaglio-engraved 
plates in which the entire surface 
is covered with ink and wiped with 
a cloth that leaves the ink only in 
the engraved lines, the amount of 
ink required was 02.">,000 pounds. 
But only 10 per cent of this was 
actually applied to the stamps, the 
balance being wiped off. The gum 
on the back of the stamps is made 
by scientifically roasting the highest 
grade of tapioca flour, such as is 
used for making pudding, and as 
350,000 pounds were used, all of the 
inhabitants of a large city would 
have been given their fill of tapioca 
pudding for one meal with the ma- 
terial used. 

The sheets of one hundred stamps 
each, as sent to the post offices, 
piled upon each other, would make 
a shaft over six and three-fifths 
miles high, and placed end to end 
would make a strip 16,500 miles long, 
and as there are ten rows of stamps 
in each sheet, a strip of single 
stamps would be 165,000 miles long, 
and would girdle the earth six times, 
with something over. 

The Bureau of Engraving and 
Printing prints all of the securities 
of the United states Government, 
which embraces checks. drafts, 
bonds, paper money, revenue, cus- 
toms, parcel post and postage stamps 
and certificates of deposit for the 
Post Office Department, 



302 



OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



It has been our constant endeavor 
not only to safeguard our stamps 
and circumvent their counterfeiting, 
but to make them really artistic. 
When you comprehend the small 
space allowed for artistic embellish- 
ment, you necessarily must marvel 
at the results we obtain. 

The engraving division is the cor- 
nerstone of the bureau and the bul- 
wark of our securities. In this divi- 
sion every form of security has 
its origin, and the most artistic 
and skilled engravers that the world 
produces are employed here. 

Steel engraving is the perfection 
of art as applied to securities ; it 
differs from painting and sculptur- 
ing, inasmuch as the engraver who 
carves bis work on steel plates must 
deliberately study the effect of each 
infinitesimal line. Free hand with 
a diamond-pointed tool, known as a 
graver, aided by a powerful magni- 
fying L r lass. he carves away, con- 
scious that one false cut or slip of 
his tool or miscalculation of depth 
or width of line will destroy the 
artistic merit of his creation, and 
weeks or months of labor will have 
been in vain. In no other form of 
printing can the beautiful, soft, and 
yet strong effects in black and white 
be obtained as in steel engraving. 
The introduction of cheap mecbani- 
cal process work has superseded the 
beautiful creations of our master en- 
graver commercially, and now we 
i i 1 1 « I the art limited to the engrav- 
ing of securities as applied in the 
Bureau of Engraving and Printing. 
The work in this division is clas- 
sified and divided so that tbe en- 
gravers become specially skilled in 
some particular branch of tbe art. 
For instance, they are classified as 
portrait, script, square letter and 
ornamental engravers. Each is con- 
lined to bis own specialty, and thus 
becomes unusually expert, tbe result 
beini: that not only better work is 
secured, but a greater amount is 
turned out in a given time, and what 
• ■; of greater importance, increased 
security is obtained. The individual 



excellencies and characteristics of a 
number of men are impressed upon 
every stamp issued. Therefore, it 
would be as difficult for one en- 
graver to make a perfect reproduc- 
tion of a Government plate as it 
would be for the reader to reproduce 
an absolute facsimile of his or her 
own signature, and, strange as it 
may seem, no one has yet accom- 
plished this feat. 

To the credit of the engravers and 
employees of this division, it should 
be stated that in the history of the 
bureau none of its employees has 
ever engaged in counterfeiting. 

When it is determined to issue a 
new stamp, the matter is discussed 
by the officials having in charge the 
several branches of the service in- 
volved, and the conclusions reached 
are embodied in a model made by a 
trained designer, which is submitted 
for the criticisms of the officers who 
discussed the matter in the first 
place. The model is then modified 
in accordance with the criticisms, 
and is finally approved by the Post- 
master General. 

The approved design is placed in 
the hands of the engravers who cut 
it upon a small piece of annealed 
steel. After the approval of a proof 
of this engraving, the piece of steel 
is heated red hot in cyanide of potas- 
sium and hardened by suddenly dip- 
ping it into oil and water. This 
single engraved subject is duplicated 
four hundred times upon the larger 
plates that the stamps are printed 
from, by means of the transfer 
process. 

This is a method of reproducing 
engraving devised many years ago 
by Jacob Perkins, an inventive 
American, who may be considered 
the father of the present method of 
duplicating bank note and stamp 
plates. It consists of making a re- 
versed duplicate or mold of the orig- 
inal engraving by rolling a soft, an- 
nealed steel roll upon it in the trans- 
fer press. Being accurately guided 
and held by the mechanism of this 
press, continued rolling under high 



304 



OIK COUNTRI AND ITS RESOURCES 



pressure forces the soft steel of the 
roll into the engraved lines of the 
original design, and forms an exact 
counterpart, in relief, of it. This 
roll, being hardened, is used to dup- 
licate the engraving by the same 
process, upon a soft steel plate, 
which it will do a great number of 
times before wearing out, reserving 
the original engraving, or die as it 
is called, for making additional rolls. 
The original engraving is never 
printed from except to make what 
are known as die-proofs. 

The paper, being printed wet, 
Contracts on drying, and the mathe- 
matically correct layout of the en- 
graved plate bears only an approxi- 
mate relation to the desired printed 
sheet. The paper we print to-day 
will vary in shrinkage from that we 
print to-morrow. As the physical 
properties of the tree govern the ex- 
pansion and contraction of the paper 
made therefrom, no two sheets are 
exactly the same size. The actual 
difference in size of the individual 
stamp is too minute to be readily 
discernible, but becomes a serious 
factor when the row is twenty 
stamps long as we now print the 
sheets. 

But that is not all. To smooth 
the paper for the operation of gum- 
ming, it is subjected to 500 tons 
pressure in a hydraulic press, and 
if very dry, it. stretches but little, 
but if the day is damp and humid 
it stretches perceptibly. The con- 
traction of the gum itself is a fac- 
tor, and the atmospheric conditions 
still another. Our perforating ma- 
chines have not human intelligence, 
and they blindly perforate the sheets 
alike until their adjustment is 
changed. Therefore, the best we 
can do is to average the adjustment 
and it is only by chance that all the 
perforations are exactly central. Of 
course, it will lie understood that 
typographic printing, being done on 
dry paper, eliminates many of these 
problems, and no greal feat is per 
formed in perfectly centering the 
perforations on a dry printed stamp. 



The present method of printing 
stamps is accomplished upon what is 
known as the "four plate power 
press." Four plates are used in or- 
der that the operation of inking, 
wiping, polishing and taking the im- 
pressions may be done simultaneous- 
ly. This press requires the service 
of a printer to polish the plates, one 
girl to lay the sheet in position and 
another girl to take it off after 
printing. 

After each two hundred sheets are 
printed, they are counted and dried. 
To secure a flat surface for subse- 
quent operations, they are pressed 
in a hydraulic press. 

They are next gummed by passing 
beneath a glass roller which is bath- 
ed in a solution of dextrine (which 
forms the gum), and the sheets are 
then carried by grippers through a 
drying chamber in which the gum 
is dried in less than thirty seconds. 
Just before leaving the gumming 
machine, the sheets are carried 
through a device that breaks the 
gum into innumerable cracks and 
materially prevents subsequent curl- 
ing. 

The printed and gummed sheets of 
400 stamps are now fed through a 
rotary perforator that perforates the 
stamps in one direction and cuts 
the sheets in half. Another perfora- 
tor of the same construction perfor- 
ates the stamps crosswise and makes 
another cut, thereby quartering the 
original sheets. 

Alter a close and rigid inspection, 
these sheets are counted and made 
into packages tor final packing for 
shipment to the post offices. 

The new building for the use of 
the Bureau of Engraving and Print- 
ing has been occupied since early 
in tin- spring of 191 1. This building 
is the most modern type of factory 
building in the United states. While 
the exterior of the building is clas- 
sic and monumental in style, the 
wings, which are utilized for factory 
purposes, are constructed along mod- 
ern factory lines. 

The building is about 505 feet 




Putting on the Seal and Numbering The Ink Mills 

Sizing the Bills The final Step; Sealing and Numbering 

THE PAPER COMES OUT MONEY 



UNCLE SAM'S MONEY 



307 



long, fronting on Fifteenth Street, 
with a depth of about 296 feet and 
a height of 105 feet. It has a base- 
ment, four stories and attic, and is 
in the form of the letter "E," but 
with four wings instead of three, 
making three open end courts, two 
of which are approximately 230 feet 
long to the end of tbe wing. The 
two inner wings, to allow space for 
the driveways, are about 30 feet 
shorter. 

Tbere is a mezzanine gallery on 
each floor, having a total length of 
about 1,800 feet on all floors where 



installed, which is used by the pub- 
lic for viewing the more interesting 
operations of the bureau, and this 
may be done without the possibility 
of any loss of a security or inter- 
ference with the workmen. 

None of the employees are permit- 
ted to leave tbe building during the 
lunch hour, as each individual em- 
ployee is held accountable for the 
securities which he or she is hand- 
ling during the working hours, and 
to permit them to leave the building 
would necessitate a check or count, 
which would be too expensive. 



I'm. 







U hill 



HAND VS, 



Photo Harris & Ewing 
MACHINE COUNTING 



Part III. 



UNITED STATES ASSAY OFFICE AT NEW YORK 

By Hon. VERNE M. BOVIE, Superintendent 



THE United States Assay Office 
opened its doors at 30 Wall 
Street in 1854. It occupied the 
same historical building until its age 
made its demolishment necessary in 
15)14. In 1910 a new eight story 
building was built adjoining the old 
in the rear, and with an entrance 
on Pine Street. Since that time its 
operations have been carried on 
there. Appropriations have now 
been made by Congress for the erec- 
tion of a new building on the site 
of the old Wall Street building, to 
be joined to the present Pine Street 
building, so that for the indefinite 
future the office will continue its 
service from the same historic site 
tin which it started. 

From deposits of a few thousands 
in value in 1854, the importance of 
the office has increased to such an 
extent that for the fiscal year 1916 
the aggregate value of the deposits 
received and handled amounted to 
the huge sum of $325,958,585.38. Of 
this $321,609,043.73 was gold and 
*4.:;4s.941.65 silver. $253,957,895.26 
was from foreign countries and $72,- 
000,690.12 from the United States. 
The number of deposits made was 
17,338. During the year 149,867 
assays were made. 

The Assay Office is the great pur- 
chasing, as well as selling, agent for 
gold for the Government. It is the 
station where the crude wealth pro- 
duced by our own mines, and the 
wealth that all the world sends to 
our shores in the ordinary activi- 
ties of commerce, is converted into 



values of United States dollars and 
cents. 

We purchase gold in any amounts 
from $100 in value up— in any form 
suitable for mint purposes and from 
any source. We receive gold dust 
from Alaska and Dutch Guiana ; 
bullion from Mexico. South and Cen- 
tral America ; L'old and silver coins 
from all the countries of the world : 
old gold and silver jewelry from 
pawnbrokers and jewelers; tine gold 
bars and mixed bullion, and light 
weight and mutilated United States 
coin. 

The purchase is made at the ac- 
tual gold value at the uniform rate 
of $20.67 per line ounce. Silver is 
paid for in fine silver bars, which, 
in turn, are marketed by the depos- 
itors at the current price in the 
open market. 

The process by which the crude 
bullion is turned into fine metal is 
itself an interesting one. The office 
is divided into four general depart- 
ments : the Deposit and Weigh 
Room, where the metal is first re- 
ceived, weighed and melted ; the 
Assay Department, where its value 
and fineness are determined ; the 
Melting and Refining Department, 
where it is refined and cast into fine 
bars ; the Clerical Force, where the 
calculations are made and final pay- 
ments provided for. 

Immediately upon its receipt the 
deposit is weighed and at once sent 
to the Deposit Melting Room, where 
it is melted and thoroughly mixed 
and cast into bars. From the liquid 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



310 



OI'R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



metal samples are taken during this 
melting from which the assays are 
made. These determine the propor- 
tions and fineness of the gold and 
silver contents. The melted deposit 
is again weighed in the Deposit 
Weigh Room, its values determined 
by the assays made from the sam- 
ples previously taken, and payment 
made by check by the Superintend- 
ent drawn on the Treasurer of the 
United States. The bar of mixed 
L r old and silver is then turned over 
by the head of the Deposit Weigh 
Room to the Superintendent of the 
Melting and Refining Department. 
Here it is again melted and cast 
into thin slahs or anodes about IS 
inches long and VL inch thick of 
about the composition of two thirds 
silver and one third gold. These 
anodes are put in a muslin hag and 
are hung in a solution of silver 
nitrate and free nitric acid opposite 
a strip of pure silver called the 
silver cathode. Electric current is 
passed through and the silver passes 
from the anode to the cathode in 
pure silver crystals. It is scraped 
off into huge earthen jars and then 
taken to the melting room and cast 
into its final form of tine silver bars. 
The residue remaining in the mus- 
lin hag is taken out. washed and in 
turn melted and cast into smaller 
anodes, or slabs, which in turn are 
taken to the gold refining room and 
by a similar electrolytic process the 
fine gold extracted. The gold is 
then in the form of a warty, irregu- 
lar slab of gold. This in turn is 



melted and cast into fine bars ready 
for the vaults or for trade purposes. 

During the refining process the 
base metals and by-products are 
taken into solution ami are later 
precipitated by chemical reaction 
a nd recovered. 

When it is realized that the ordi- 
nary deposit in its course through 
the office is melted five times: that 
not less than five and often seven 
or more assays are made of it: that 
each bar is stamped with five sep- 
arate stamps; that it must be con- 
stantly weighed and re-weighed and 
checked and re-checked: some con- 
ception may be had of the care and 
attention to detail required in the 
office. 

Experimental work, looking to the 
discovery of better and more efficient 
methods, is being constantly carried 
on. The office uses the most perfect 
appliances obtainable for its work 
and seeks constantly to increase the 
efficiency and perfect the products 
of its labor. 

With the increased development 
of the commerce of the country and 
the recent almost phenomenal 
growth of its financial power, the 
Importance of the work of the Assay 
Office, as related to the financial and 
business world, constantly increases. 
It is now the largest and most com- 
pletely equipped office of its kind in 
the world and through its doors is 
destined to pass in continuing vol- 
ume the golden stream that will 
make the United States the financial 
master of the world. 



Part IV. 



HOW COINS ARE MINTED 

By Hon. A. M. JOYCE, Superintendent 
U. S. Mint, Philadelphia 



IN the operation of providing 
coinage for the country the Gov- 
ernment purchases the gold bul- 
lion from anyone who offers it fin- 
sale at the rate of one dollar for 
each 23.2 grains of pure gold, or 
about $20.67 per ounce, and silver at 
the market quotations when request- 
ed. This bullion, if in an unrefined 
state, is refined and separated from 
all foreign matter. It is then sent 
to the mint and delivered to the 
superintendent of the melting de- 
partment. Nine parts of pure gold 
or silver are mixed with one part of 
copper (alloy) and the mixture 
melted in crucibles placed in the gas 
furnaces. It is then poured into 
molds and produces ingots about 12 
inches long. iy 2 inches thick, and 
from 1 to 2 inches wide, depending 
upon the denomination to be made. 

Granulations of these ingots or 
melts are taken and sent to the assay- 
ing department and assayed for their 
fineness. If found correct, the ingot is 
stamped with the number and fine- 
ness of the melt : if not correct, it 
is condemned and remelted. This 
then places the responsibility for the 
legal fineness of every coin upon the 
assayer. The ingots passed by the 
nssayer as correct are then delivered 
to the superintendent of the coining 
department. 

The superintendent of the coining 
department upon receiving the in- 
gots from the superintendent of the 
melting department passes them 
cold, through ten-inch hardened 



steel rolls, eighteen or twenty times, 
depending upon the denomination, 
each driven by a fifty horse-power 
electric motor, each draft reducing 
the thickness, and adding to the 
length of the strip until the last 
draft leaves it of such a thickness 
that a coin of the desired denomi- 
nation cut from it will weigh as 
nearly the right weight as it is pos- 
sible to roll. After rolling the ingot 
to the required thickness of the coin, 
or denomination required, it is put 
through the cutting machine where 
the blank, or planchet, is punched 
out, leaving the clippings to be re- 
turned to the melting room, there 
to be re-melted and returned to in- 
gots. 

The blanks are then sent to the 
selecting tables, where women desig- 
nated as selectors examine the 
blanks and pick out all imperfect 
pieces or cuts, known as "chips." 

The gold planchets or blanks are 
then sent to the weighing room, 
where they are passed through the 
automatic weighing machines. 

In practice it is impossible to Cut 
all the gold planchets so that they 
will each weigh precisely the stand- 
ard weight, therefore, the law per- 
mits a tolerance or variation of the 
weight from standard of one-half 
grain on double-eagles and eagles, 
and one-quarter grain on half and 
quarter-eagles. 

The machines, known as automatic 
weighing machines, then weigh each 
of the planchets separately, and 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



314 



OUR COUNTS! AND ITS RESOURCES 



those found one-half grain above 

standard arc deposited in a separate 
box, and marked "heavies." and 
those found standard and one-half 
grain light are placed in a separate 
l>"\ and marked "lights." The 
"heavies" that are found above the 
limit of tolerance are passed through 
a machine known as the shaving 
machine and reduced to within the 
limit of tolerance, one-half or one- 
quarter grain, depending on the de- 
nomination, to good "heavies" one- 
half and one-quarter grain above 
standard. Those that are found too 
light are condemned and l'o back 
to the melting pot. After coinage, 
all coins are again re-weighed. At 
this stage the metal, after going 
through the various operations. is 
very hard. and. before it can he 
stamped, it is necessary to anneal or 
soften the same, otherwise it would 
be very destructive to the dies when 
the piece is being struck on the 
coining presses. The blanks are 
placed in a gas annealing furnace, 
where they remain in the retort un- 
til they become a "cherry red," when 
they are dropped from the furnace 
into water to beep them from oxi- 
dizing. After coming out of the wa- 
ter they are cleaned in a weak acid 
solution and dried out in centrifugal 
machines. They are then sent to the 
milling or upsetting machines, 
where the edge is turned up <>n the 
blank. The blanks are now bright 
and soft and ready for stamping or 
coining. In the coining room they 
are fed into the coining presses by 
automatic feeders, and the automatic 
fingers on the presses take one piece 

at a time from the bottom of the 
tube attached to the automatic feed- 
er and place it between the dies, at 
the same time pushing the finished 
pieee .nit : 1 1 1 < 1 dropping it in a 
screened bos at the side of the press. 

The upper and lower die being re- 
spectively the obverse and reverse 
sides <if tlie coin, in this position 
it drops automatically into a collar 
which Is internally engraved to con- 
form to the edge of the coin, known 



as the reeding: at that instant the 
dies approach each other under a 
pressure of one hundred tons to the 
square inch, and the planchet is 
pressed so that the metal is driven 
into every corner and crevice of the 
engraved die, and at. the same time 
outward into the engraving on the 
interior of the collar producing the 
reeding or rough edge. This enor- 
mous pressure is regulated by ad- 
justing screws, which determine just 
how close together the two dies, up- 
per and lower, will lie brought to 
each other, and this adjustment is 
made so they shall come just close 
enough together to bring out every 
detail of the engraving. 

This coinage operation proceeds 
at the rate of from 90 to I2i> pieces 
coined per minute, on one press, the 
speed of operation being adjusted 
according to the size of the press. 
There are in the Mint at Phila- 
delphia twenty-four coining presses 
Of three different sizes. 

After stamping, each coin is sep- 
arately inspected and weighed. Six 
automatic inspecting machines are 
in use. Each machine is operated 
by two women who have a view of 
each side of the coin as it passes 
through the machine. The weighing 
is done on the automatic scales. The 
law permits a variation of one-half 
grain on double-eagles and eagles, 
and one-quarter of a grain on half 
and quarter-eagles, and one and a 
half grains on all silver coins, from 
the standard weight. The pieces 
that weigh above or below the stand- 
ard mark are kept separate. The 
condemned are rolled out and sent 
back to the melting pot. < >wing to the 
greater tolerance (one and a half 
grains) on silver the blanks are 
rolled close enough to eliminate all 
weighing, but niter coinage the 
pieces are weighed the same as gold. 

After weighing and separating the 
coin is counted by weight and placed 
in sacks: the gold in $5,000.00 pack- 
ages and the silver in $1,000.00 pack- 
ages, and delivered to the superin- 
tendent , -w ho places it in vaults sub- 



316 



OT'R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



jeer to orders from the Treasurer. 
Assistant Treasurers and banks. All 
metals are delivered to the superin- 
tendent by weight as well as value. 
Cold and silver coin and bullion are 
received and delivered at 1,000 Hue 
ounces and minor metals and coin 
at troy ounces. At the end of the 
fiscal year, i.e., June 30th, the total 
weight of all the ingots delivered 
to the coining department by the 
superintendent during the year 
stands charged against said depart- 
ment and the total weight of all the 
good coin, condemned coin, clippings, 
sweeps, etc.. that have been deliv- 
ered back by the coining department 
to the superintendent are placed to 
the credit of the coining department. 
Theoretically, this is supposed to 
balance, but if it does not the super- 
intendent of the coining department 
will be held responsible for the short- 
age. However, in practice, the law 
recognizes the utter impossibility of 
putting such an enormous quantity 
of metal through all the different 
operations without a certain amount 
of loss or wastage, and tins legal 
allowance on gold is 1/2000 part, or 
for every 2,000 ounces operated upon 
one ounce may be lost in wastage 
before the coining department is 
held responsible. < >n the same 
amount in silver the legal allowance 
would be two ounces. 

The actual wastage in the coining 

depart nt under the new system of 

cleaning does not average more than 
live per cent of the legal allowance 
in gold and ten per cent in silver. 
Inning the fiscal year ended June 
30, 1913, the Mint at Philadelphia 
coined $19,678,227.50 in gold and the 
loss or wastage on this amount was 
14.289 ounces, of the value of $284.12, 
and $1,936,199.75 in silver coin on 
which there was a loss or wastage 
of 22.05 ounces, of the value of 
$12.24, or a total value of $296.36 
in gold and silver. This loss covers 
the workings of an entire year of 
$21,614,427.25. The legal percentage 
of wastage to the amount operated 
upon was gold, 1.37, and silver, 1.84. 



The precautions to guard against 

any possible loss bj carelessness on 
the pari of the employees during 
the process of manufacture art' 
about as near perfect as human in- 
genuity can devise. At the opening 
of the day. the metal is weighed and 
Charged to the various departments 
and a settlement of the same is made 
each day before the close of work. 
In the morning the entire weight of 
the metal that stands charged to the 
coining department on the superin- 
tendent's books constitutes the coin- 
ing department's opening balance. 
Every ounce of metal that is dis- 
tributed among tin' various depart- 
ments is charged to that department, 
and at the close of business for the 
day is weighed, and. if found cor- 
rect, the account with the various 
departments is closed and the metal 
locked in the vaults. A detailed 
statement of the workings of each 
department, showing the amount 
operated upon, finished and unfin- 
ished, together with loss and wast- 
age, is sent to the office of the super- 
intendent of the coining department, 
where a tabulated record is kept 
from day to day. It shows by the 
size of the operation if the loss ex- 
ceeds the legitimate loss in any one 
department by even less than one 
piece. If the loss is excessive, then 
the employees in that department 
are kept until the shortage is ac- 
counted for. or t'ne error in calcula- 
tion discovered. It generally hap- 
pens to be an error in figures, or a 
coin or box of coin had been over- 
looked. <>n the whole it is rare for 
the question to arise. Once in a 
while in an extraordinarily large op- 
eration there might be a Legitimate 
loss equal to the weigh! of a single 
piece in excess of the estimate of 
what the loss should be. and this 
would remain unaccounted for ex- 
cept as legitimate loss. It would be 
out of the question for any consider- 
able theft to be committed or even 
to conduct a systematic pilfering on 
a small scale without the culprit be- 
ing discovered in a short time. The 



318 



OUR COl NTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 



daily record of the day's workings 
kept in the superintendent of the 
coining department's office shows the 
loss <>r wastage on every operation. 

The scales used for the weighing 
of bullion, coin, and metals will 
weigh from 1/100 part of an ounce 
up to 10,000 ounces at each draft. 

When the coin is finished and 
counted it is delivered daily to the 
superintendent in sacks containing 
$5,000 in gold and $1,000 in silver 
in amounts that may have been 
coined the day previous. Out of 
every delivery of finished coin to 
the superintendent, there is taken at 
random by the assayer and superin- 
tendent one piece for each 1,000 
pieces of gold, and one piece from 
each 2,000 pieces of silver, which 
are locked in what is known as the 
"pyx box," the superintendent or his 
representative holding the key to one 
combination, and the assayer the 
key to the other combination. Each 
year in February as assay commis- 
sion, consisting of twelve or fifteen 
leading and representative citizens 
from all parts of the United States. 
the Judge of the United States Dis- 
trict Court, Comptroller of the Cur- 
rency, and the Assayer of the United 
States Assay Office in New York, 
are appointed by the President. The 
last named are ex-offlcio members of 
the Commission. He selects men 
who are expert chemists, scale mak- 
ers, ruin specialists, financiers, pro- 
fessors and lawyers. They meet at 
the Mint in Philadelphia, organize 
themselves into committees on count- 
ing, weighing and assaying and 
these committees open the "pyx box," 
count, weigh and assay a large num- 
ber of the coins and report the re- 
sult to the President. In case any 
of these coins are found outside the 
legal limit of weight or fineness, it 
would be sufficient grounds for the 
removal of the operative officer or 
officers. 

Prior to the delivery of coin to 
the superintendent and before the 
assay pieces are taken out, the lat- 
ter, by the trial separately of not 



less than five pieces for each 1,000 
pieces embraced in the proposed de- 
livery, must satisfy himself that the 
coins are within the legal limits as 
to the weight. If these trial pieces 
prove satisfactory the delivery is 
made, and if not satisfactory all the 
coins are weighed separately and 
such as are not of legal weight are 
defaced and delivered to the super- 
intendent of the melting and refin- 
ing department. As an additional 
precaution, from the first and two 
subsequent deliveries in each week 
of gold and silver coins of each de- 
nomination of coin delivered by the 
coining department two specimen 
pieces are taken at random, certified 
and enclosed by the superintendent 
and assayer i in the same manner 
as above prescribed for the Annual 
Assay Commission), and promptly 
forwarded to the director of the 
mint by registered mail for assay by 
the assayer of the Bureau of the 
Mint. 

Metals required for the manufac- 
ture of minor coins, that is. five cent 
nickel and one cent bronze pieces, 
are purchased by the superintendent 
of the mint, with the approval of 
the director of the mint as to price. 
terms and quantity, after public ad- 
vertisement, as provided by law. 
The metal so purchased is delivered 
to the melting department where it 
is converted into ingots 23 inches 
long, Us inches wide, and % of 
an inch thick of legal alloy. The 
live cent piece, or nickel, contains 
7-"> per cent of copper and 25 per 
cent of nickel, and the one ceiii 
bronze piece contains P.". per cent of 
copper and 5 per cent of zinc and 
tin. These ingots are delivered to 
the coining department, where they 
are passed through heavy sixteen- 
Inch lolls and reduced in the thick- 
ness of the COin. About fifteen 
passes are required to make this 
reduction. Starting with the ingol 
23 baches long, the strip is rolled 
fifteen feet and then cut in two. 
Each of these strips will he 1 1' feel 
long when finished, The strips are 



UNCLE SAM'S MONEY 



319 



then put through the cutting ma- 
chines, where six blanks of bronze, 
or five blanks of nickel are punched 
out. These presses make 170 revo- 
lutions per minute and in that time 
punch 1,020 bronze blanks, or 850 
nickel blanks. These blanks are 
passed through rotary annealing fur- 
naces in order to make them soft 
and malleable before stamping. 
From the annealing furnace they 
are placed in tumbling barrels for 
the purpose of cleaning and bright- 
ening, and rolled in a solution of 
our own devising for about half an 
hour. Xo acid is used. After tumb- 
ling, or rolling the blanks are thor- 
oughly washed and then dried in 
centrifugal machines. No sawdust 
is used in this operation. The blanks 
are selected and milled. The fin- 
ished blanks, or planchets are taken 
to the coining room, where they are 
stamped and inspected, after which 
they are counted and placed in 
sacks. The nickel sacks hold $50 
and the bronze $10. They are now 
ready for delivery. No pyx or 
special assay coins are taken from 
the minor coin. The tolerance on 
these pieces being much greater than 
on gold and silver, no adjusting is 
required. 

A separate plant for the minor 
coinage, remote from that used in 
the coining of precious metals, has 
recently been fitted up in another 
part of the building. This plant is 
equipped with heavy machineiy, and 
is capable of turning out a greater 
percentage of coin at less expense. 

A separate plant also adjoins the 
minor coinage plant. It is known 
as the medal room. It is equipped 
with four of the latest improved hy- 
draulic presses and other suitable 
machinery and appliances for the 
manufacture of medals and proof 
coin Here are made gold, silver 
and bronze medals for the Govern- 
ment and private parties. Gold and 
silver medals are made from fine 
gold and silver. 

All dies used in this and the other 
United States mints are made in 



the engraving department of this 
mint. All dated dies and all other 
coinage dies which have been in use 
are destroyed at the end of the cal- 
endar year. The engraver is the 
custodian of all dies. 

The operative officers in their ac- 
counts with the superintendent are 
charged and credited with deliveries 
of bullion or coin by weight and the 
account kept in fine ounces. Troy 
weights are used, while metric 
weights are by law assigned to the 
half, quarter dollar, and dime, 
15.432 grains being considered as 
the equivalent of a gramme. 

The average cost for minting the 
different denominations, as shown 
by the cost report for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1913. is as follows : 

Per M 
pieces. 

Double-eagles ."537.42 

Eagles 13.13 

Half-eagles 11.50 

Quarter-eagles 10.24 

Half-dollars S.17 

Quarter-dollars 0.80 

Dimes 2.09 

5-cent nickels 2.85 

1-cent bronze 1.48 

The above figures include the cost 
of ingot assays, ingot melting, the 
entire coining department and all of 
the superintendent's department net 
expenditures. 

During the year all sweeps, rags 
used in cleaning machinery, wash 
water, etc., are gathered and placed 
in a large iron vessel, the water 
evaporated and the residue burnt. 
After being dried the residue is taken 
to the sweep cellar where it is passed 
through a jaw crusher which re- 
duces the sweeps to one inch or less 
in diameter, then through a mill 
with sixty mesh screens which grinds 
the sweeps under water until they 
are fine enough to pass through the 
screen to the two settling tanks and 
a steam drier. The type of mill is 
a standard mining machine where 
the rolls and the pan remain sta- 
tionary. It is of sufficient size to 
make it unnecessary to keep the mill 
in continuous operation and thus the 
men are available in other places. 



::•_•" 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



I EG \I. WEIGHT AND FINENESS OF THE COINS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
THEIR DIAMETER AND THICKNESS 





Legal Weight 


Fineness 


Diameter 


Thickness 






Thousandths 


Inches 


Inches 




Grains Troy (J/.s. 


GOLD: 










Double eagle 


516 1.075 


9(H) 


1.3.50 


0.096 




258 -~>:<,7r, 


'.too 


1.060 


.080 


Half eagle 


129 .26875 


900 


vis 


.065 


Quarter eagle 


64.5 .134:i7.-> 


900 


.700 


.050 


SILVER: 










Half dollar 


192.9 .401875 


900 


1.205 


.082 


Quarter dollar 


96.45 | .200937 


900 


.955 


.065 


Dime 


38 58 .080375 


900 


.705 


.051 


MINOR: 










Five cents 


77.16 .16075 


75 per cent copper 
25 per cent nickel 


.835 


.078 










( >ne <vnt 


48 .1 


95 per cent copper 
5 per cent tin and 
zinc 


.750 


.058 



The drier constantly agitates the 
wet swoops, so that they cannot hake 
on the bottom. One settling tank is 
directly above the other and the 
lower contains a steam syphon which 
lifts the water to the upper. From 
the upper tank a connection leads 
the water back to the mill so that 
it may bo used over again. After 
being thoroughly dried the sweeps 
are barreled, samples taken there- 
from and assayed. Afterwards they 
are sold to the highest bidder. 

During the ten years ended June 
30, 1913, this mint coined $362,824,- 
125.00 in regular domestic gold coin. 
*t;o.(ir.'.t.n<i in Lewis and Clark gold 
dollars, and 81 1,953,488.38 in foreign 
(Mexican) gold coin, $7,041,294.65 
in foreign silver and minor coin. 
$41,185,228.95 in domestic silver coin, 
and $24,477,958.2:1 in live cent and 
one cent pieces, making a total coin- 
age of $450,542,164.19, or 1,547,- 
431,704 pieces. Upon this larjre coin- 
age the wastage or loss was gold, 
$18,491.93; silver. $12,129.15, and 
live and one cent pieces $4,346.22, 
a total of $34,967.30. The average 
coinage per year was $45,049,441.60 
and tlic average loss or wastage was 
$3,496.73. 

Since the elimination of acid for 
cleaning purposes and the introduc- 
tion of the new Cleaning method the 
wastage has been reduced one-half. 
The last three years show a very 



small wastage compared with for 
mer years. 

During the last two years the 
coinage of gold and silver has fallen 
off considerably: the former due to 
the passage of an act authorizing 
the issuing of gold cert ideates on 
gold bars instead of the coin as here- 
tofore, and the latter owing to a 
large surplus of subsidiary coin in 
the vaults id' the Treasury and sub- 
treasuries. On the other hand, the 
demand for minor coins has in- 
creased. This, no doubt, was due 
to the change in design of the live 
and one cent pieces. 

A complete system of cost-keeping 
shows the cost of each process in 
coinage operations per ounce of 
metal handled, and per dollar of 
product: calculations are made 
monthly and a statement of the same 
made. 

If the seigniorage on silver and 
minor coin is taken into considera- 
tion, it will show that this mint is 
the largest money making institu- 
tion in the Government service. As. 
for instance, a troy pound of copper 
will yield $1.20 and a troy pound 
of nickel $3.75. The copper and 
nickel cost approximately 3"» cents 
Iter pound for the former and 38 
cents for the latter. The tin and 
zinc for alloying will be added to 
the copper, silver can be purchased 
for about CO cents per ounce. 



CHAPTER XXV. 
HOW UNCLE SAM PROTECTS HIS REVENUE 

By A. II. PEARSON 



PERSONAL liberty in the United 
States is so complete that we 
scarcely realize there is a pow- 
erful central government to watch 
over our destinies and make us com- 
port ourselves with proper regard for 
the rights of citizens in our neigh- 
boring States. Frequently, an Amer- 
ican's first real contact with Federal 
power comes on his return from a 
trip abroad, when he is advised that 
he must pay duty on goods that he 
has brought with him. He may have 
looked with contempt on the poor 
foreigner who must submit to the 
pettifoggery of an officious govern- 
ment, and he may be returning with 
a smug "better-than-thou" attitude, 
only to receive a rude shock to his 
complacency as the customs officials 



board the vessel and make him swear 
out a statement of his dutiable per- 
sonal effects. Then, no matter if he 
does consider it an invasion of his 
rights as a freeborn American citi- 
zen, he must submit to having his 
trunk opened, and searched more or 
less perfunctorily, to make sure that 
he has not perjured himself. He 
may even be called aside to answer 
searching questions about a certain 
piece of jewelry. Now, how did Eli- 
de Sam know that he had that 
trinket? For the first time he is 
aware of a spy system, not unlike 
that of Russia, which reaches out 
beyond our shores to foreign lands 
and keeps track of the purchases of 
the American tourists. Despite the 
humiliation of being treated as a 




CUSTOMS EXAMINATIONS OF DRY GOODS AT THE APPRAISER'S STORES 
Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



322 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



iiu Minn .11 


> 1 


PL1> ■* i. ' WSJ 


p ,3W»,t 




^K « -■ ;■£.•**■■ !Sk_-, 


Pi 


^^ 


1 



ALL CUBAN LEAF TOBACCO MUST BE MINUTELY EXAMINED 



smuggler, he cannot help but feel 
a great respect for the omniscience 
of a government whose existence he 
barely realized up to that moment. 

Although examination of travel- 
ers' baggage is the most troublesome 
work that the Custom House has to 
deal with, it is a paltry business 
compared with the collection of tin- 
ties on general merchandise. De- 
spite the far greater attention to per- 
sonal baggage, smuggling still con- 
tinues anion- tourists, especially 
those of the gentler sex. who display 



remarkable ingenuity in concealing 

their dutiable goods. One customs 
official hopelessly admitted that 
•■women are borh smugglers, and we 
cannot hope ever to suppress them." 
As for general merchandise, the 
opportunities for smuggling are so 
remote, the co-operation between the 
Government and the importers them- 
selves is so complete, and the pen- 
alty for smuggling is so severe as 
compared with the reward it offers, 
that practically no goods enter the 
country without paying duty. Take 




STAMPING BOXES OF IMPORTED CIGARS AFTER THEY HAVE BEEN THOROUGHLY 

INSPECTED 



:;im 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



diamonds, for instance, which one 
would suppose could very readily be 
introduced into the country because 
their value per size i^ so enormous. 
Not only does the Governmenl keep 
track of purchasers of diamonds 
abroad, hut the dealers do as well, 
and they are constantly on the look- 
out for smuggled stones, realizin:.' 
that it is to their own interest to 
report any stones introduced without 
paying the required tariff. Further- 
more, to make it unprofitable to 
siuu^'lc the stones into the country, 
the tariff on them was reduced sev- 
eral years ago from 25 per cent to 
10 per cent. 

Some idea of the enormous amount 
of work involved in keeping track of 
the goods that enter this country 
may he obtained by a visit to the 
Appraisers' Stores on the lower west 
side of New York. The building is 
ten stories high and takes up an 
entire block, while across the street 
is an annex of no mean size. In 
these buildings at least 10 per cent 
of everything that comes into New 
York from foreign ports must be 
examined. A sample of literally 
everything under the sun rinds its 
way at one time or another into the 
Stores, and no matter what its char- 
acter may he. whether a fifty-karat 
diamond or a penny doll, it must be 
gravely considered and its value ac- 
curately and scientifically determ- 
ined, so that the proper custom duty 
may he levied thereon. To handle 
this enormous quantity of material 
engages the attention of U'.'.s men. of 
whom 134 are examiners. The du- 
ties of the examiner are exceedingly 
difficult. Each man has a certain 
classification assigned to him. and 
he must he prepared t<> determine 
the wholesale value of any of the 
various articles that might turn up 
under that classification. He must 
he able to tell of just what material 
or materials the article was made, 
how much the materials were worth 
in the market from which they came, 
and just what was the value of the 

labor which was expended upon it. 



Not only that, hut he must know the 
market values of the materials and 
labor at the time of shipment. This 
must he determined on his own 
knowledge ami not on the word of 
the shipper. He cannot depend on 

anyone else, hut must stand on his 
own statement, which he must he 
ready to hack up with incontestable 
evidence in case the importer carries 
an appeal to a higher court. He 




Weighing Cotton Yarn Inside an Oven for 
Customs Determinations 

must he able to detect all the tricks 
with which unscrupulous manufac- 
turers delude the ignorant public. 
For instance, in the textiles depart- 
ment, the examiner must he able 
to tell whether a piece of goods eon 
tains cotton, linen, or silk, and in 
what proportion. Saving determ- 
ined this, he must know the quality 
of the material used in making it up. 
If it is of silk, he must determine 
whether the silk is artificial or natu- 
ral. If natural, what kind of silk, 
and where it came from. If he is 
in doubt about the matter, he refers 
a sample to the laboratory, where 



HOW UNCLE SAM PROTECTS HIS REVENUE 



:\25 




An Up-to-Date Smuggler's Vest Has Thirty- 
six Pockets 



the fabric is subjected to a chemical 
test in order to determine accurately 
what its composition may be. Natu- 
rally, an examiner acquires before 
long such an experience as to qualify 
him as an expert, an experience that 
it is impossible to obtain anywhere 
else. 

Recently, curiosities, works of art, 
and antiques, over a hundred years 
old, have been admitted free of duty. 

The examiner who has to appraise 



the work of artists has an exceed- 
ingly difficult task. In many cases 
it is not at all easy to distinguish 
between spurious and genuine old 
masters. The work of these exam- 
iners is of undeniable value to the 
country in preventing the importa- 
tion of counterfeits. 

Similar protection against fraud 
is found in the case of tea. No duty 
is levied on tea. but all tea must 
be examined for purity before being 
admitted into the country. In the 
tea room of the New York Apprais- 
ers' Stores a hundred thousand sam- 
ples of tea must be tested per year. 
One of the photographs shows the 
manner of testing. Each cup con- 
tains a different sample of tea iden- 
tified by a number marked on the 
bottom of the cup, and one of the 
cups contains a standard sample. 
Which one it is the examiner does 
not know, for the identification of 
this sample also is marked on the 
bottom of the cup. The examiner 
then proceeds to arrange the cups 
according to the color and taste of 
the tea. After the grading is done 
the samples are thrown away and 
the cups turned upside down to 
show the identifying numbers. All 
the samples on one side of the stand- 
ard are passed as good tea, while 
those on the other side are rejected. 
To make sure that no error has been 
made the test is repeated with a 
second set of samples. In order to 




SMUGGLING DUTIABLE GOODS IN BOOKS 



326 



OUR COUNTRY AM > ITS RESOURCES 



detect any pigment used in the tea 
the leaves are mashed on a piece of 
white paper, and then the paper is 

examined with a microscope for faint 
spots of coloring matter. The tests 
are very rigid and thorough, and the 
Tinted States may pride itself on 
having nothing but pure tea to drink. 

Perhaps the must tedious wort at 
the St i ires is the testing of sugar. 
The tariff on sugar depends on the 
proportion (if cane sugar the samples 
contain. This is determined accur- 
ately by means of a polariscope, 
which analyzes the liu'ht that passes 
through samples of the sugar syrup. 
In the case of sugar only samples 
are brought to the Stores, and as 
a check upon the examiner, two sam- 
ples out of each barrel are given 
him. Each sample hears its own 
number, hut the examiners have no 
means of determining which two 
came out of the same barrel. Never- 
theless, his work must he so accu- 
rate that when like samples are 
paired again the readings will lie 
practically identical. 

The laboratories <d the Stores are 
also kept busy with quantitative an- 



alyses of various chemical product-. 
particularly in the search for alco- 
hols in medicines, etc. There is 
also a section devoted to metallurgi- 
cal analyses. 

Obviously it would be impossible 
to examine every article imported 
into the country, and so it is the 
practice to bring at least ten per 
cent of a shipment to the Stores. 
If the shipment consists of but one 

or two cases of g 1< at least one 

case must be examined. The cases 
that go to the Stores are picked out 
at random by the examiner. He 
Compares the contents of the case 
with the invoice and then investi- 
gates one of the articles under the 
invoice minutely in order to deter- 
mine its quality. If this tallies with 
the specifications the case is passed. 
In the case of leaf tobacco, every 
package must be opened, in order 
to determine whether the leaves 
are good enough to be used for 
wrappers, which must carry a duty 
of one dollar and eighty-five cents 
per pound, or whether they are fit 
only for tillers, which pay thirty- 
live cents duty. 





&9 ftjdlw \L 






7 





TESTING THE COLOR AND STRENGTH Of TEA 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 



ALASKA, 1867 



ALASKA is a gigantic headland 
thrusting itself out from the 
extreme northwest corner of 
the American continent, with the 
waves of the Arctic Ocean washing 
its northern and western shores, and 
the racific bounding it on the south ; 
only the narrow Bering Strait sep- 
arates it from Siberia, while to the 
east lies Yukon Territory and Brit- 
ish Columbia. About a third of its 
area is within the Arctic Circle. We 
purchased Alaska from Russia in 
1867 for $7,200,000; for a long time 



we neglected its possibilities, and 
the revenue from it was small, but 
since 1S67, and mostly within the 
past sixteen years, its utilized min- 
erals, fish and furs have reached the 
enormous value of some $600,000,000, 
or more than eighty times its pur- 
chase price. About half this return 
must be credited to minerals, chiefly 
to gold, while fisheries and furs pro- 
vide the other half. Of course there 
have been large administration ex- 
penses, but these probably do not 
exceed $50,000,000. 



180 



ITO 160 150 140 




vi 



160 



ino 



140 



SOME OF THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF ALASKA 
Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



328 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Alaska's 590,844 square miles, 
which we acquired for one and three- 
quarters cents an acre, give her al- 
most three times the area of France, 
and more than double that of Texas. 
This area falls into four natural 
divisions: the Arctic Slope region, 
with a maximum elevation of 3,000 
feet; the Central Plateau. ::.000 to 
5,000 feet; the Rocky Mountain 
system, entering from Yukon and 
stretching across the country in a 
northeasterly direction: and the Pa- 
cific system, including the Alaskan, 
St. Elias, and "Panhandle"' ranges, 
with such peaks as Mt. Crillon, !">.- 
JHX) feet, the active volcano Mt. 
Wrangell, 17,500 feet, Mt. St. Elias, 
18,024 feet, and Mt. McKinley, tow- 
ering to the height of 20,300 feet, 
and taking rank as the highest on 
United states soil, and the thirteenth 
highest in the world. 

The greatest river system of 
Alaska is that of the Yukon and its 
tributaries, the Koyukuk and the 
Tanana. This system provides 3,000 
miles of navigable water. The 
Kuskokwim, another important riv- 
er, is navigable for GOO miles. There 
are several fine lakes, among them 
the 160-mile reach of Nikhkak, in 
the rugged Sitka n district. 

The climate is milder than might 
be expected from the high latitude. 
The interior, of course, presents rig- 
orous conditions, but the coastal re- 
gions of the Pacific are beneficially 
affected by a warm current similar 
to that of the Gulf Stream. These 
regions have a copious rain-fall: at 
Sitka the average is 80 inches, com- 
pared with 44.6 inches for New York 
City. 

The old belief that Alaska could 
never have any real agricultural 
value is disappearing. The Govern- 
liient experimental work. I'm- which 
the main station is at Sitka, has re- 
sulted in producing at Coldfoot, go 
miles north of the Arctic Circle, s- 
incl cucumbers, 19 inch rhubarb, 1 
inch potatoes, and 8-pound cabbages. 
Lettuce is especially crisp and de- 
licious, and turnips of - I qualit) 



attain a weight of It; pounds. Along 
the coast, seaweed and lish guano 
make excellent fertilizers. Here the 
heavy rains prevent grain from be- 
ing raised, except for forage; but 
in the interior, and particularly at 
Rampart, very satisfactory results 
have been obtained. Of the capital 
cities of the United States, 31 record 
as low degrees of temperature as 
Sitka, and 4 are colder than Valdez, 
while the winter of Juneau is usu- 
ally milder than that of Washing- 
ton. I». C. Roses, lilacs, and Eng- 
lish ivy thrive in the neighborhood 
of Seward, and southeastern Alaska 
boasts fifty species of birds, among 
them the song sparrow and the her- 
mit thrush. 

Juneau, the capital, with its quaint 
shops and its streets that terrace to 
the water, is picturesque and lively. 
It has good schools, churches, clubs, 
and hospitals, a library, a theater, 
a chamber of commerce, and news- 
papers. Fine lawns and well-fur- 
nished homes are not lacking, and 
the town is equipped with a good 
water supply and electric light. 

Some 27,000,000 acres of the Ter- 
ritory is covered by timber— cedar, 
hemlock, spruce, and fir. Alaskan 
cedar is admirable for shipbuilding, 
cabinet work, and interior finish : it 
is close-textured, and wonderfully 
durable under exacting conditions. 
and its odor is so suggestive of san- 
dalwood that it has been shipped 
to Japan, made into ornamental 
boxes and fans, and sold as genuine 
sandalwood. 

Of the fishing industries, that of 
salmon is of commanding import- 
ance, the worth of the annual catch 
may be roughly placed at $15,000,000. 
In May. the "China boss" brings to 
the canneries a horde of Chinese. 
Japanese, South Americans, and 
Filipinos. Men, women and little 
children work at top speed during 
the canning season, twelve and four- 
teen hours a day and seven days a 
week. Fish poisoning is common. 
Housing conditions are unspeakably 
bad. In catching salmon, there are 



330 



(Hi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



no restrictions ns to method, and the 
trap system menaces the life of the 
Industry. The day's catch of one 
fisherman, during a particularly 
heavy "run." was 3,000 salmon. Na- 
tives an- asking for remedial legis- 
lation, the enforcement of the laws 
governing restraint of trade, and the 
regulation <»f child labor. Another 
urgenl need of Alaska is more light- 
houses along her dangerous coasts. 
Alaska is under a Governor ap- 
pointed by the President for a four- 
year term. Since 1912 it has had a 
Legislature of two Houses. The Ter- 
ritory is in the Ninth Circuit of the 
Supreme Court, with its four judi- 
cial divisions at Juneau, Fairbanks, 
Valdez, and Nome. Each division 
elect-- two members for the Senate 
and four for the House, the Senate 

thus consisting of eight members 

and the House of sixteen. One dele- 
gate is sent to Congress from the 
Territory. 

Business licenses furnish most of 
the revenue, which is approximately 
$1,000,000. In 1! top there were 152 
industrial establishments, with a 
combined capital of $13,000,000, a 
combined output valued at $11,- 
130,000, and employing T.'l. IT'.i men. 

Education is carried on by means 
cf a hundred schools, enrolling, in 
1913, <;..".(;:; children, and costing 
$350,000 to support. These are 
maintained partly by the Federal 
Governmenl and partly by the muni- 
cipalities. 



In 101.°,. 400 miles of railroad were 
in operation. In 1915J two routes 
for a most important Government 
railroad were before President Wil- 
son. One was the Cordova-Fair- 
banks route: the other was that 
from Seward, on Resurrection Pay. 
to Fairbanks, 471 miles inland along 
the Tanana River. lie finally select- 
ed the latter route, two reasons 
probably influencing his choice. 
First, a railroad from Seward al- 
most to Knik already exists, and 
was purchasable for the very rea- 
sonable sum of $1,150,000; this re- 
duces the length of the new work by 
some hundred miles. Second, Se- 
ward has probably the best harbor 
and town site in Alaska. The new 
road will cost $26,000,000, including 
the construction of a branch from 
Matanuska Junction to the Mata- 
nuska coal field, one of the most 
valuable fields of high-grade coal in 
the Territory. The work is under 
the direction of the Alaskan En- 
gineering Commission, and will later 
be exended to Yukon, thus opening 
up the interior and its vast re- 
sources. 

According to the census of 1910, 
the population id' Alaska was made 
up of ::0.::47 white and 28,009 na- 
tives, Asiatics, and negroes. The 
natives are the Eskimo, or Innuit. 
of the north and northeast, the Tin- 
nehs, or Indians of the interior. tin- 
Aleuts, or islanders, and the Tlingits 
of the North Pacific coast. 



HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. L898 



Till: cluster of islands consti- 
tuting the Territory of Hawaii 
was formerly known as the 
Sandwich [slands, and is found in 
the North Pacific Ocean. Hawaii. 
the largesl and most southerly of 
the group, emerges from the sea 
about 1,300 miles north of the equa- 
tor, and 2,200 miles from San Fran- 
cisco. The discovery of these is- 
lands is usually credited to ("apt. 
Cook, in 177*. although an earlier 
discovery is claimed by Spain. 



American missionaries wore sent 
there in 1820, and these men re- 
duced the language to written form; 
SOOn after this idolatry was abolished 
by a decree of the ruler, Kamehame- 
ha II. In 1844, the independence of 
the islands was guaranteed by the 
Fidted states. Great Britain, and 
France. < >n August 12th, 1898, the 
archipelago was transferred to the 
Governmenl of the United states, 
and on June 14th. 1!HK>, it was or- 
ganized as a Territory. 



UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 



331 



The islands have au area of 6,449 
square miles. Although they lie en- 
tirely within the tropics, the heat 
is moderated by the trade winds 
that blow for nine months of the 
year; clear skies and an equable 
temperature characterize the cli- 
mate and conduce to the healthful 
conditions which prevail. The tem- 
perature at Honolulu, the capital, 
averages 71 deg. F. in December, 
and less than 77 deg. F. in July. 
The rainfall varies greatly, the 
windward side of the islands re- 
ceiving the most. At Hilo it may be 
eighty inches or more, while at the 
more sheltered Honolulu the aver- 
age is probably within thirty-eight 
inches annually. There are no hur- 
ricanes of damaging violence, al- 
though several high gales may be 
expected in the course of the winter 
season. 



^ 



\OAHU 

Honolulu "*' £—» — ^ 



„S>C£K 




There are eight islands in the Ha- 
waiian group, besides numerous 
islets for the most part uninhabited. 
Hawaii Island, the largest, contains 
4,210 square miles, and the popula- 
tion in 1910 was 55,382. Here 
Mauna Loa, the largest volcano in 
the world, looms 13,675 feet into the 
air ; Mauna Kea slightly exceeds 
this height, reaching 13,805 feet, 
and ranking as the highest peak in 
the Pacific Ocean. Mauna Loa is still 
active, and sixteen miles away, in a 
southerly direction, is Kilauea Hill, 
which has the distinction of possess- 
ing the largest active crater in the 
world, nine miles in circumference, 
with vertical sides 1,000 feet in 
depth. The eastern coast is scarred 



by ravines reaching a depth of 2,000 
feet, through which eighty-live 
streams pour their waters. 

Northeast of Hawaii is Maui Is- 
land, of 728 square miles, with a 
population in 1910 of 28,623. It is 
mountainous, and presents some pic- 
turesque scenery. Its two main por- 
tions are connected by a sandy isth- 
mus that is but little above sea level. 
The summit of Mount Haleakala 
(10,032 feet) may be reached on 
horseback ; the long, regular gradi- 
ents make this feat comparatively 
easy. At the summit is found the 
largest extinct crater in the world. 
The northwest coast possesses a 
good harbor in Lahaina, with steam- 
ers plying between that port and 
Honolulu. 

Molokai Island, not much more 
than a third as large as Maui, is 
occupied by a low mountain range, 
and is popularly known as the site 
of the leper settlement, where all 
those affected by the disease are iso- 
lated. 

Oahu Island, with a population of 
90,000 and an area of about 500 
square miles, presents some of the 
most charming, natural forma- 
tions, combining mountains and ra- 
vines, cascading waters, and rich 
foliage and vegetation into pictures 
wholly satisfying to the artistic eye. 
Coral reefs girdle its coasts, and on 
the southern shore is Honolulu, the 
capital of the Territory, on a plain 
formed by the upheaval of an old 
coral reef. 

Kauai Island possesses the most 
fertile soil of any in the group, the 
advanced decomposition of its lavas 
showing that volcanic action has 
been long extinct. It is roughly cir- 
cular in shape, of an area of 547 
square miles, and in 1910 the popu- 
lation was 23,744. Twenty miles to 
the southwest is the little island of 
Niihau. 

Cook found few animals in the 
islands. There were dogs, rats and 
hogs, and a day-flying bat. The 
only reptile was a small lizard. 
There are now cattle, sheep and 
goats, and some deer. More than 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



fifty species of birds have been 
found, but the Chinese turtle-dove 
and the European house-sparrow 

are the only birds frequenting the 

towns. 

The windward districts are quite 
heavily forested. Sandalwood is 
no longer obtainable, but the can- 
dle-nut and the screw pine are char- 
acteristic of the slopes and valleys. 
while the cocoanut palm grows free- 
ly on the coast. The soil is general- 
ly very productive, and in lino there 
were 4,.",r>0 farms, covering 2,590,600 
acres, the land being valued at $78,- 
000,000; the live stock upon them 
was worth $4,300,000. The commer- 
cial products include coffee, rice, 
arrowroot, honey, bananas, sisal, 
wool, hides, skins and .tallow, rub- 
ber, cotton, and tobacco, but sugar 
and tropical fruits are the chief ex- 
ports. On the sugar plantations 
the growing use of irrigation canals 
is resulting in increased crops; that 
of 1914 was 618,000 tons, and the 
yield is from two to seven tons to 
the acre, depending upon location. 
The industrial establishments of the 
islands numbered, in 1910, 500. with 
7. ."72 employees, and a combined 
capital of $23,875,000; the material 
used was valued at $12:3,0:29,000, the 
output at $47,404,000. 

Communication facilities are con- 
stantly being improved. There is a 
large and increasing mileage of 
good roads, and more than .'500 miles 
of railway. 240 miles of it being on 
the islands of Hawaii and Oahu. 
In Honolulu almost every house 
has its telephone; there are 6,000 
miles of wire on the live main is- 
lands. The best harbors, after that 
of Honolulu, are Pearl, on Oahu; 
Hilo, on Hawaii; and Kahului. on 
Maui. From these and the lesser 
ports of the group, 436 vessels of a 

total tonnage of 1,574,845 cleared 

in 1915, and in the same year 156 
vessels, of 1,605,925 tons, entered. 
Inter-island transportation is pro 
vided for by a licet of sixteen small 
steamers. At Honolulu new wharves 
have been constructed, and the larg- 
est steamers can now he accommo- 



dated. At Hilo and at Kahului 
breakwaters have been built, and 
the harbor of Kahului has been 
deepened. The erection of light- 
houses has progressed steadily. 
Ten steamship lines touch at the 
islands, from Canada, the United 
States. the Philippines, China. 
Japan, and Australia. Wireless 
puts the islands into communication 
with each other, with the Pacific 
roast, and with vessels at sea, and 
cables stretch to both shores of the 
Pacific. 

Upon formal annexation to the 
United states, a Legislature of two 
houses was established. Fifteen 
members are elected for a four-year 
term to the Senate, and thirty mem- 
bers with two-year terms constitute 
the House of Representatives. Once 
in two years these bodies meet in 
a sixty-day session. The President 
of the United States appoints for 
four years a Governor, at a salary 
of $7,000, and a Secretary. A I tele- 
gate is elected to the United States 
Congress by popular vote. The ju- 
diciary consists of a Supreme Court 
and Circuit and District Courts; dis- 
trict magistrates are appointed by 
the Chief Justice of the Supreme 
Court; all other judges, including 
those of a United States District 
Court, are appointed by the 1 Presi- 
dent. There were nearly 8,000 con- 
victions in 1915. mostly for minor 
offenses. 

There were 170 public schools in 
19ir>. where 735 teachers gave in- 
struction to -'.I 000 pupils, at a cost 
of $772,000; besides this. $70,000 
was expended upon new buildings. 
These are free schools, and English 

is the language in general use. In 
addition, there are about fifty pri- 
vate schools, with an enrollment of 
7,7oo pupils. Industrial soh<M»ls for 
both hoys and girls, a normal school. 
a College of Agriculture and the Me- 
chanic Arts, and a reformatory. 
The enrollment records disclose the 

fad that of all these pupils some 
1 s.i 100 are Asiatics, S.000 are of 
Hawaiian blood. 5,700 are Portu- 
guese, and 1,403 American, the re- 




Photos by the American Museum of Natural History 



Natives Catching Fish 
Objects of Culture 



HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 



:::;i 



mm; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



mainder being Germans and British. 

In the Old "lays, the Hawaiian 
was a coast dweller, having his 
grass hut under the palms, and his 
garden or small plantation on the 
hill slopes. A little patch of kalo, 
less than fifty feet square, provided 
him with a year's sustenance. He 
was a great fisherman, and there are 
in existence lines made from fine 
olona fiber which have seen a cen- 
tury of service, and are still in good 
condition. His huge sailing canoe 
was a familiar sight to the Me- 
lanesians. and the impression made 
by his gigantic war canoe, carrying 



pean costume: his fishing line, when 
he condescends to fish, is of cheap 
foreign manufacture, and much of 
the fish he eats comes from the tin 
can: the picturesque hut of grass 
has been almost wholly replaced by 
the shack of rude wood, and he is 
on intimate terms with the slum 
of the town. When Capt. Cook 
found him. he was one of a proud 
race 400.000 strong : to-day that race 
has dwindled to less than 25,000, if 
we exclude the 12,000 of mixed 
hlood. 

The modern Hawaiian has. how- 
ever, retained many of the ehar- 




G0VERNMENT BUILDING. HONOLULU 



its hundred ruddy-skinned warrior-. 
musl have been awe-inspiring. This 
was in the days when the goddess 
I'ele spoke from her volcanic throne, 
and -Tele's hair." a sort of natural 
mineral wool spun by the wind from 
lava-drops, was found in the crev- 
ices as substantial evidence of her 

reality. All this lias passed. The 
Hawaiian of to-dav affects Euro 



acteristics that make him so attrae- 
tive to ns. lie is still a fine speci- 
men of physical humanity, ploasure- 
Iovuil:. athletic, and musical in 
voice and in temperament. His 
guitar still holds tones that have 
never been duplicated upon other 
instruments or evoked by other lin- 
gers. His women continue to weave 
their flower garlands and bright 



UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 



necklaces, and the dance has lost 
none of its abandon. 

There are in the islands 80,000 
Japanese, 22,000 Chinese, and 22,000 
Portuguese, and several thousand 
Filipinos have been introduced. 
Japanese, Chinese, and Korean im- 
migration is now forbidden. 

The census of 1910 gives the popu- 
lation of Honolulu as 52,183, and 
the entire population of the inhab- 
ited islands is now estimated to be 
322,856. Honolulu is in many as- 
pects quite modern ; electricity lights 
its streets and, operates its cars. It 
has a Roman Catholic and an Angli- 
can bishop, and ministers of several 
other denominations. It has fine 
parks, a water system, hotels, clubs, 
newspapers, a hospital, a large 
library, a museum, and several 
large manufacturing establishments. 

The Hawaiian National Guard is 
a body of a thousand men, and mili- 



tary works are in progress at va- 
rious places in Oahu, including 
fortifications, a naval station, and 
a drydock at Pearl, on the island 
of Oahu. 

A direct property tax furnishes 
most of the revenue of the Territory, 
augmented by licenses and land 
sales, road, school and poll taxes. 
The assessed value of all property 
in 1915 was $170,001,222, the annual 
receipts from all sources were 82,- 
796.140, and the expenditures $2,- 
747,270 ; there is a bonded debt of 
$7,S73,000. The exports of the Ter- 
ritory were $62,464,759, the imports 
$26,416,031, for the year ending 
June 30th. 1915. Practically all the 
export trade was with the United 
States, as was 80 per cent of the 
import trade. Raw sugar accounted 
for $51,368,995 of the export figures, 
refined sugar for $1,584,100, and 
tropical fruits for $6,319,129. 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1899 



IN our East India possessions, the 
Philippine and Sulu Islands, we 
have a territory as large as the 
United Kingdom, with a population 
larger than that of Canada. To put 
it more exactly, if less impressively, 
the area of the archipelago is 121,- 
400 square miles, and the population 
is 9,000,000. The formation of the 
group suggests a wish-bone, with the 
largest and most northerly island, 
Luzon, as the stem; Mindoro and 
the long, narrow Palawan, with the 
chain of islets between them, forms 
the western fork of the bone; the 
eastern fork is made up of Samar, 
Panay, Negros and Mindanao, the 
latter being the second largest and 
the most southerly island of the 
group. The islands and islets num- 
ber altogether 3.141. The China Sea, 
which washes the western coasts, 
puts 500 miles of water between the 
group and the continent of Asia. 
The Sulu chain bridges the gap be- 
tween Mindanao and Borneo, and 
farther north the gap is again 
bridged by the long arm of Palawan 




and Balabac; these extensions en- 
close the Sulu Sea ; to the south 
rolls the Celebes Sea, and on the 
east is the vast extent of the Pa- 
cific, the first mainland encountered 
in this direction being Central 
America. 



336 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



The Philippines were discovered 
bj Magellan in 1521. Spain took 
them i>\ conquesl in 1542, and held 
ilicin for more than three centuries; 
in; <>n the outbreak of the Spanish- 
American War. Admiral Dewey, 
commanding our Pacific fleet, de- 
stroyed the Spanish warships in 
Manila Hay on .May 1, 1898, and 
Manila was taken by General Mer- 
lin in the following August. The 



Mi. Mayon, in Luzon, broke into 
devastating activity; mild earth- 
quake shucks are frequent, bul the 
buildings are sn constructed as to 
withstand fairly severe shucks The 
islands are all mountainous, the gen- 
eral trend ot the systems being north 
and south. Mt. Apo 1 10,300 feel I 
on Mindanao is the highest summit: 
no other peaks exceed 9,000 feet. 
Ihe longest river is the Cagayan, 




PHILIPPINE SCENERY 



Treaty of Paris i December 10, IS9S l 
ceded the archipelago to the United 
States. Then followed battles with 
the native forces under Aguinaldo, 
ending with Ins capture in .March. 
1901. 

< >f volcanic formation. I he Philip- 
pines still ha\c twelve active \ol 

cai s. In 1880 destructive earth 

quakes were experienced; in 1 S '.»T 



which rises in the mountains of the 
eastern coast of Luzon and traverses 
the Island in a northerly direction 
for 220 miles: other important 
streams are the Cotobate and the 
Agusan in Mindanao. The Laguna 
de Bay, a fresh water lake, near 
Manila, is thirtj miles long, and 
numerous smaller lakes are scattered 
throughout the islands. The archj- 



UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 



331 



pelago has a Longitudinal extent of 
a thousand miles ; from northern 
Luzon to southern Mindanao is as 
far as from New York City to south- 
ern Florida ; hence it is to be ex- 
pected that climatic conditions vary 
greatly in different portions of the 
group. While the climate is, of 
course, tropical, the heat is on the 
whole more bearable than that en- 
countered in many temperate coun- 
tries. The seasons may be desig- 
nated as hot, wet and cold. The hot 
season (March to June) is at its 
worst just before the southerly trade 
winds begin to blow ; in the latter 
part of this season violent thunder- 
storms occur; from July and through 
October the rain falls in torrents, 
often registering- seventy inches for 
the four months ; in Manila, seventy- 
five inches is perhaps a fair annual 
average. From November to March 
is the so-called cold season, when 
heavier garments are necessary to 
comfort and a sense of invigoration 
is born of the cloudless skies and 
the cleansed air. The mean temper- 
ature at Manila is, for the hot 
season, about 87 degrees ; for the 
wet season, 85 degrees, and for the 
cold, 72 degrees. 

The fauna of the islands is not 
prodigal in mammals, but it offers 
peculiarities that well repay the nat- 
uralist. There are wild boar and 
deer; monkeys are found every- 
where, one species being a pure 
white ; there is a lemur about the 
size of a squirrel, which sleeps the 
day through and seeks its food by 
night, its long hind-legs propelling 
it over the ground in frog-like leaps ; 
there are two species of civet, and a 
wild cat ; also porcupines, squirrels 
and rats, and numerous species of 
bats; lizards, alligators and turtles 
are found, and some enormous mol- 
luscs ; the shell of the tablobo has 
been known to attain the weight of 
two hundred pounds. The waters 
provide both curious and valuable 
fish. The usual domestic animals 
are met with, and the buffalo is 
used in the fields. 



The forested area is extensive, and 
is under the supervision of the 
United States Forestry Bureau. It 
offers a wonderful variety of tim- 
ber, cabinet woods, palms, trees 
yielding gums, spices and dyewoods, 
and bamboo. No matter what par- 
ticular quality or combination of 
qualities may be sought to meet 
special uses, a timber may readily 
be found that will admirably serve 
the purpose. Since the supply great- 
ly exceeds any local demand that is 
likely to arise, these forests consti- 
tute a most valuable resource. 
Three-fourths of the trees are of the 
dipterocarp family, corresponding to 
the conifers of our zone. From this 
family may be obtained an abun- 
dance of woods eminently suitable 
for interior finish and for furniture, 
and exhibiting a wide range of color 
and texture. Tanguile and red 
lauan closely resemble mahogany in 
appearance. If hardness bo the qual- 
ity sought, guipo and apitong may 
be relied upon; they are extensively 
used for flooring, and a still harder 
wood used for this purpose is yacal ; 
this latter is ideal for heavy con- 
struction work, as are also ipil and 
pagatpat ; these timbers make strong 
and durable railroad ties. Should 
we seek beautiful cabinet woods 
there are many trees of the locust 
family, among which may be found 
colors and grainings to satisfy the 
most exacting tastes ; the ipel is a 
striking example in this class. Then 
there are woods that lend themselves 
to less common and even more diffi- 
cult demands. Mancono and dungon 
make the finest dumb-bells, bowling 
balls and bearings. Calantas is an 
excellent substitute for the Spanish 
cedar used in cigar boxes. Ebony, 
the highest priced of all Philippine 
woods, has a wide distribution, but 
the trees do not attain any great 
size ; perfect pieces bring $300 a 
thousand feet board measure. 

The islands are far from poor in 
minerals. In most of the larger ones 
gold is found, and the crude work- 
ings of the natives have now given 



338 



<>n: <<M*.\TRY AXI> ITS RESOURCES 



place to an established industry that, 
in 1913, produced oearly a million 
dollars' worth of the precious metal. 
Other minerals found in greater or 
lev- quantities are silver, platinum, 
mercury, lead and manganese; there 
are several coal fields, iron exists in 
various parts <>f the archipelago, cop- 
per lias long been mined by the na- 
tives for manufacture into utensils, 
and there are evidences of sulphur. 
petroleum, ruck salt, kaolin and 
gypsum. In 1913 the value of all 
minerals yielded up by the soil was 
$1,972,290. 

Dhe aborigines were probably Ne- 
gritos, who were gradually forced 
into the remoter natural strongholds 
ii\ their Malayan invaders, until the 
latter came to dominate the islands. 
Of the present entire population of 

9,000,000 nearly 8,000, t are Unman 

Catholics; the Moros are Mohamme- 
dans, and number perhaps 300,000; 
the uncivilized, pagan tribes of the 
mountains, scattered throughout the 
islands, make up the remainder. It 
will be seen that the non-Christian 
and uncivilized elements can neither 
singly nor together he taken as in 
any way representative of the Fil- 
ipino people. The -Malayan is the 
dominant and representative stuck. 
At the social functions of Manila one 
meets highly educated men and 
women in the conventional evening 
dress, should we engage one of 
these nun in conversation about his 
country, he will tell us that writing 
was common before the arrival of 
the first Spanish monk, and that the 
inhabitants were a highly moral peo- 
ple at that time: that they have en- 
joyed three centuries of civilization; 
that at the time of the American 
Occupation, l"> per cent of the Chris- 
tians were literate: that there was 
a university in the Philippines be- 
fore Harvard was founded, and that 
the Americans found on their com- 
ing 1,674 public schools, and colleges 

for both men and women in every 
capital city of any importance; that 
Luna had already achieved interna- 
tional fame as an artist, and music 



and poetry of a high order wore 
written; and that the unusually fine 
examples of WOOd-carving demon- 
strate the artistry of the Filipino 
craftsman. On the other hand, he 
would not deny that American occu- 
pation had increased the number of 
public schools to more than i,000, 
and had raised the literacy to 7." 
per cent. There are now :!T educa- 
tional divisions under direction of 
the Secretary of Public Instruction, 
with a public school enrollment of 
500,000; there are normal and indus- 
trial trade schools, and private 




STATUE OF MAGELLAN IN PALACE AT 
MANILA 



schools enroll some 10,000 pupils. 
The University of the Philippines. 
maintained by the state, has col- 
leges of Liberal Arts. Law. Medi- 
cine and Surgery, Engineering, Fine 
Arts, Veterinary Medicine and Agri- 
culture, with 2,000 students. 

Much thought has been L'iven to 
the solution of the problem presented 
by the Moros. With this in view, a 
hundred miles of Moro country in 



UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 



339 



the island of Mindanao has been 
organized into eight colonies, where 
the mixed peoples live peacefully to- 
gether, their children attending the 
same schools. English is now the 
official language of the archipelago. 
The educated Filipino speaks sev- 
eral languages and follows American 
politics assiduously. The people are 
in general, kind, hospitable and in- 
telligent. 

Agriculture is the chief industry, 
in which one-half the workers are 
engaged. More than 8,000,000 acres 
are under cultivation, 3,000,000 acres 
being devoted to rice. The principal 
products are rice, Manila hemp, 
copra, sugar, maize and tobacco. Ob- 
solete methods and insufficient labor 
account for the agricultural possi- 
bilities being in a neglected state, 
but our occupation is already accom- 
plishing good results in this direc- 
tion. All public schools have now 
an elementary course in agriculture, 
and a rural credit system is fur- 




NATIVES OF JOLO SELLING FRUIT 

thered by an Agricultural Bank bav- 
ing twenty-six agencies. In 1914 the 
outstanding loans of tins institution 
aggregated nearly two millions of 
dollars. 

The 1915 imports amounted to 
$44,479,861, the exports to $50,915,- 
061. Abaca or Manila hemp stands 
first on the export list with a value 
of $19,000,000; copra next with a 



value of $12,000,000, and sugar third 
with a value of $!>. 712,757; cigars 
and cigarettes accounted for $2,102,- 
317, and all other tobacco for $1,- 
5S9.67S. The value of the chief im- 
ports was : Cotton goods, $9,069,247 : 
rice, $5,448,301 ; steel and iron prod- 
ucts, $3,993,984. Half the entire 
trade of the islands is with the 
United States. 

The central government is vested 
in a Governor-General, who is also 
President of the Philippine Commis- 
sion, assisted by eight commissioners, 
four of whom are the executive 
heads of departments known as In- 
terior, Commerce and Police, Fi- 
nance and Justice, and Public In- 
struction. The commission consti- 
tutes one house of the legislature, the 
other is known as the Assembly, with 
eighty-one members elected by limited 
franchise for four years. Two Resi- 
dent Commissioners, elected by the 
Legislature, take their seats, but 
without a vote, in the United States 
House of Representatives. Political- 
ly, the archipelago is divided into 
thirty-six provinces and, in addition, 
the Department of Mindanao and 
Sulu, which is itself divided into 
provinces and districts. Thirty-one 
are known as regular, and the others 
as special, provinces ; the first class 
are governed by provincial boards 
elected by the people; governors of 
the special provinces are appointed 
by the Governor-General and the 
commission, acting in concert. Muni- 
cipal officers are elected for terms 
of four years by the voters ; about 
nine hundred towns enjoy this auton- 
omy. Each town has a justice of 
the peace : in each of the twenty-six 
judicial divisions the administration 
of justice is under a judge of first 
instance, with the exception of the 
city of Manila, which constitutes the 
ninth district or division, and to 
which four judges are assigned. 
There is also a supreme court. Be- 
sides the municipal police, there is 
what is known as the Philippines 
Constabulary, with a strength of 
about 350 officers and 5,000 men. 



340 



<HK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



The garrison of the islands has 
10,000 American and 5,000 native 
troops, ami a body known as the 
Philippine scouts number about 
5,000. 

Customs duties and internal taxes 
provide must of the revenue, which, 
in I'M 4. was $11,912,763 : in the same 
year the expenditures were $13,333,- 
321, hut as at the beginning <>f the 
year tin-re was a balance of $5,- 
679,587. there was still on hand at 
its conclusion $4,259,027. In 1014 
the bonded debt was $16,125,000. Of 
the expenditures for this year, more 
than $5,000,000 was devoted to social 
and public improvemeni and eco- 
nomic- development. 

Leprosy, smallpox, the bubonic 
plague and cholera were formerly 
prevalent in the islands. Radical 
measures have been taken to stamp 
out these diseases, and much progress 
has been made. There are between 
two and three thousand lepers iso- 
lated in a colony on the island of 
Culion. Intestinal diseases, which 
ravaged the Philippines, have been 
reduced by almost one-half: this re- 
sult is attributed largely to the pure 
water supply secured for Manila; 
in the smaller towns this has been 
accomplished by the drilling of hun- 
dreds of artesian wells. If is as 
yet hard to obtain accurate health 
statistics except for .Manila; here 
tin- birth rate is about 36, and the 
death rate 25 or less, per thousand. 

Manila has a population of 2T< '.- 
("1(1; of these 1 T.HI II I are Chinese; 
there are probably 6,000 Americans. 
counting in the garrison, and 6,000 
Europeans, two-thirds of them Span- 
iards. Chinese Immigration to the 
Philippines was orohibited in 1902, 
and registration is required of 
Chinese laborers. The number of 
Chinese now on the islands is put 
at ."II. lino, and the entire number of 
whites i American and European) is 
estimated to be 20,000. The savage 
tribes of the mountains differ widely 

in many respects, ami it is a mistake 

tu call them all "Igorrotes." Even 
the [gorrotes, filthy and barbarous 



as they are. possess some good 
traits. Although they live in moun- 
tainous parts of the country they 
cultivate the soil industriously, first 
terracing the slopes, then laying out 
their plots upon these terraces, irri- 
gating them by canals that are con- 
structed with no mean skill. They 
are monogamists among whom di- 
vorce is unknown, and by whom in- 
fidelity is severely punished. 

There is little manufacturing done 
in the Philippines, hut pina fibers, 
cotton and silk are woven into fab- 
rics that are frequently attractive 
and durable: baskets, cordage, pot- 
tery, furniture, hats. mats, musical 
instruments and carriages are also 
made: but the only manufacturing 
industry of note is that of cigars and 
cigarettes: 305,000,000 cigars were 
made on the islands in 1913, about 
one-third of this output being con- 
sumed in the country while the rest 
was exported; and in the same year 
4,500,000,000 cigarettes were pro- 
duced, mostly for local consumption. 

There are more than 5,000 miles 
of good road in the Philippines, 1,800 
miles being hard-surfaced road of 
the first quality; permanent bridges 
and culverts number nearly 6,000. 
At the time of the American occu- 
pation in 1898 there were but 120 
miles of railway; this connected 
Manila with Dagupan. There are 
now 720 miles, with 212 miles more 
planned, if not actually under con- 
struction: bun miles are on I.n/.on. 
72 on I'anay. and 60 on Cebu. The 
islands have 5,300 miles of telegraph 
lines and 1,173 miles of cables; 71111 
post-offices handle the mail. The 
postal revenue for 1914 was $380,- 

942, and the telegraph revenue was 

Si's;:.. '111.".. Money orders were sold to 
the value of $8,272,858. Tin- tine 
harbor at Manila will allow of the 
entrance of vessels drawing thirty 
feet of water, and next in importance 
an- the harbors of Cebu and Hollo. 
Cebu is a city of 60,000 population, 
and lloilo has 50,000. The ports of 

the Philippines in 1914 received for- 
eign vessels to a tonnage of l, pi 2,750, 



UNCLE HAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 



§41 



and the tonnage of foreign vessels 
clearing was 1,931,249. The mercan- 
tile marine consists of some 700 ves- 
sels, about one-fourth of this fleet 
being steam vessels, totaling 55,000 
tons. 

Four banks are established in the 
Philippines. In 1904, after a trou- 
blesome experience with the Mexican 
dollar, the United States tried the 
expedient of guaranteeing by gold 
the Filipino peso, a coin worth fifty 
cents in American money. Fluctua- 
tions in value are thus avoided, and 
the experiment has proved quite suc- 
cessful. The postal savings bank has 
now about 45,000 depositors, and the 
total deposits are nearly 3,000,000 
pesos. 

The alertness of the Filipino, and 
his eagerness to learn, have already 
been touched upon. It should not, 
then, surprise us that more than a 
hundred newspapers are published 
on Filipino soil. The predominating 
language of the press is Spanish, but 
no less than 27 of these newspapers 
are in English, 33 are in native dia- 







-7 i'< v i^- 


1*1 -' Jfcfy 



PHILIPPINE COFFEE PLANTATION 

lects, and 3 are in Chinese. If fur- 
ther promise of a Filipino rena- 
scency is required, we may find it 
in the quiet tribute of the Hon. John 
Barrett, director-general of the Pan- 
American Union, who, in favorably 
comparing the Philippine Congress 
with the Japanese Parliament, tinds 
in it "a ministry of bright men, of 
acknowledged ability as internation- 
al lawyers." 



PORTO RICO, 1899 



PORTO RICO is the most east- 
erly island of the Greater An- 
tilles, in the West Indies ; it was 
discovered by Columbus in 1493, and 
was held by Spain until its capture 
by the United States in 1S98. It is 
100 miles long and about 40 miles 
in width, except toward the eastern 
end, which narrows considerably ; 
the area is 3,436 square miles, and 
it has, besides, several islands of 
importance, of which the largest is 
Vieques (100 square miles). Porto 
Rico is 1,400 miles from New York 
and less than 1,000 from Colon, Pan- 
ama. It is wonderfully fertile and 
presents a beautiful appearance. 

A mountain range, with a maxi- 
mum height of 3,800 feet, traverses 
the island from west to east, and 
there are 1,300 streams, of which 
fifty may be termed rivers ; but none 
are navigable for more than a mile 
or two from the coast. The hilly 
nature of the country causes tht 



trade winds to precipitate their 
moisture upon the northeastern low- 
lands, where the average rainfall is 
120 inches, while at San Juan, the 
capital, it is but 55 inches. The 
temperature varies between 50 de- 
grees and 100 degrees. 

Although there are 40.000 small 
farms, valued in 1910 at more than 
$102,000,000, and GO per cent of the 
workers are on the soil, not much 
more than one fourth of the land is 
under cultivation. The lowlands 
produce sugar, the hill slopes coffee 
and tobacco; much of the latter, of 
superior quality, is grown under 
cloth. Other products are sea island 
cotton, textile fibers, Indian corn, 
sweet potatoes, rice, maize, plan- 
tains and yams. Grapefruit, or- 
anges, pineapples, coeoannts and 
other tropical fruits flourish. Most 
of the trade is with the United 
States. The country south of the 
mountain range is not so well 



342 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



watered, but for this district there 
is dow under construction an irri- 
gation system, to cost $3,000,000, 
winch will greatly increase the out- 
1 mi nt' the island. Molasses and 
honey are products of importance, 
lull the Staples are sugar and eot'l'ee. 
the former constituting 47 per cent 
of all exported products. In 1914 
320,633 tons of sugar, valued at 
$20,240,335, - and 50,211,947 pounds 
of coffee, valued at $8,193,544, were 
shipped from Porto Rico. 

Spanish cedar, ebony, rosewood, 

Indian sandal w 1 and mahogany 

are all found on the island, and the 
Talauma, with its white, sweet- 
scented flowers, furnishes a timber 
locally known as "sabino." At least 
twelve different plants are used in 
dyeing and tanning, and the fruit 
of the vijao, which grows in wild 
luxuriance, is used by the natives 
for ink and dyes, which are claimed 
to be quite fast in color; the root 
of the turmeric also yields a dye 
used for hammocks, ribbons and 
Cloth, and this may prove to have 
commercial possibilities. 




Porto Rico is poor in fauna ; the 
passing of the armadillo and the 
agouti has left only small rodents, 
squirrels and a species of great 
land turtle as representative of the 
four-footed population. <»t' the few 
reptiles, none are venomous. Doves 
and various song birds frequent the 
higher d i s t ricts; green parrots 
abound in the forests; and water 
birds, among them the gaudy flamin- 
go, are found along the coasts. Both 
salt-water and fresh-water lish are 
caughl in considerable quantities. 
Of the domestic animals, cattle are 
raised in sufficient numbers to form 
an industry worthy of DOte. 



Little is known of the extent of 
the mineral resources. Since much 
alluvial gold was recovered by the 
Spaniards, it is reasonable to infer 
that rich veins await discovery in 
the mountains. Copper, iron, tin. 
bismuth, mercury, platinum, nickel 
and coal have been found, and salt 
is worked extensively. This latter 
is the only mining enterprise upon 
an established basis. 

San Juan, the capital city, has a 
good harbor with a fairly clear en- 
trance: when improvements now 
under way are completed the en- 
trance will be (iOO yards wide, with 
30 feet of water. The city had in 
1910 a population of 50,000. with a 
town hall, a cathedral, a general 
hospital and a theater. Other towns 
are Ponce, which had 03.444 popu- 
lation, and Mayaguez, with a popu- 
lation of 42.42!>. The island boasts 
74 municipalities, each electing its 
cwn mayor, city council and city 
officials. 

Porto Rico is administered by a 
Governor and an Executive Coun- 
cil, appointed by the President for a 
four year term ; six heads of depart- 
ments and live natives make up the 
Council. The Legislative Assembly 
is composed of two bodies, the Ex- 
ecutive Council and a House of 
Delegates; the seven electoral dis- 
tricts each supply live members to 
the House of Delegates. A Resident 
Commissioner to the United States 
is also elected by popular vote for 
the term of two years; he takes his 
seat in the Federal Congress. Enact- 
ments of the Council and the House 
are subject to the veto of the Gov- 
ernor. The judiciary of the island 
includes an Attorney Genera] with 
his staff, a United States Court, and 
a Supreme Court of live, all ap- 
pointed by the President; the Gov- 
ernor appoints fifty-nine justices of 
the peace; seven Districl Judges are 
appointed by the Governor, while 
the people elect to oiiice the judges 
and officials of thirty-four municipal 
courts. 

The educational system has been 
much improved since Americans 



UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 



843 



took charge of affairs. In 1S99 
more than 83 per cent of the people 
could neither read nor write. That 
year saw the complete reorganiza- 
tion of the school system, education 
being made compulsory. The num- 
ber of common schools has been in- 
creased from less than 800 to more 
than 4,300, with an enrollment of 
207,010 in 1914. There are four 
high and twenty-five continuation 
schools, besides night schools, kin- 
dergartens and private schools. At 
Rio Piedras, a few miles from San 
Juan, is situated the University of 
Porto Rico, where students of both 
sexes receive instruction in such 
special subjects as teaching, science, 
engineering, medicine, law, architec- 
ture and agriculture ; the farm and 
dairy of the University enable stu- 
dents to master the practice as well 
as the theory of agriculture, and in 
this the Government experiment sta- 
tion at Mayaguez offers its whole- 
hearted and valuable co-operation. 

In 1892 the island possessed 119 
miles of railway. It now has more 
than 220 miles. This links together 
the towns of the western coast, 
partly encircles the island, and to a 
certain extent opens up the interior. 
It is intended to extend the present 
facilities until there is a railroad 
entirely around the island, and an- 
other project is the running of a 
new line across the island, with 
many branches and ramifications. 
There are a thousand miles of tol- 
erable roads in Porto Rico, 600 miles 
of postal telegraph wire, govern- 
ment owned, forty telegraph stations 
and 80 post offices. The telephone 
is also winning its way into business 
and social demand. 

The population was estimated for 
1914 at 1,184,489, an increase over 
1910 of 6G,477. Of this population, 
less than 50,000 are negroes, some 
340,000 are mulattoes, and the rest 
are whites. Almost nothing is 
known of the original inhabitants ; 
a few of their stone weapons, im- 
plements and images, with some 
earthenware fragments, have been 
found, and are now preserved in the 



Smithsonian Institution; and at 
Gurabo, on the Rio Grande de Loiza, 
may be seen a sort of monument 
roughly hewn in stone and bearing 
a number of mystifying designs. 

The revenues of Porto Rico come 
from customs and excise, from the 
tax on property, an inheritance tax 




FIRST FLAG RAISING IN PORTO RICO 

and various fees and licenses. The 
receipts from these sources for the 
year ending July 1st. 1914, were 
$10,108,708 : the property had an 
assessed value of $179,271,023. The 
police force numbered about 700 men 
and the military forces about 600. 

The industries of Porto Rico arc 
chiefly concerned with the produc- 
tion of embroideries, drawn work 
and hats. In 1910 there were 989 
industrial establishments; their 
combined capital was placed at $25,- 
544,385, and their output at $36,- 
749,742. These establishments em- 
ployed 15,582 work people. The 
tonnage of American and foreign 
vessels clearing from Porto Rican 
ports during the year ending July 
1st, 1914, was 1,216,909. The island 
is a port of call for thirteen steam- 
ship lines. In 1914 the imports were 
valued at $80,406,787 and the ex- 
ports at $43,102,762. In 1915 the 
exports to the United States alone 
reached a value of $43,311,920. 



:;n 



mi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



GUAM, 1899 



GUAM, the largest and most 
southerly island of the Ladrone 
group, the rest of which belongs 
i<i Germany, lies in the North Pacific 
Ocean, nearly 1,500 miles east of the 
Philippines. It was discovered by 
Magellan in 1521, was held by Spain 
from 1688 to 1898, and was captured 
by the U. S. cruiser "Charleston" 
during our war with Spain, The 
island is 29 miles long, from .'! to 10 
miles in width, and its area is 210 
square miles. The northern part 
presents the appearance of a large 
plateau, while the southern portion 
is hilly, attaining a beight of 1,280 
feet. 

The vegetation is luxuriant, and 
soil and climate are admirably suit- 
ed to agriculture, but the laziness 
of the natives lias prevented any 
extensive development of this pur- 
suit. October to May is the dry sea- 
son, although rain not infrequently 
falls. The temperature is even, 
with August and September the hot- 
test months, the yearly mean tem- 
perature being about 81 deg. Fahr. 
Guam is occasionally visited by dev- 
astating typhoons and earthquake 
shocks are not uncommon. Trade 
winds moderate the heat and condi- 
tions are generally milder than in 
the Philippines. 
The valleys are forestrated with 

valuable hardwoods. F 1 fruits 

are the custard apple and sour sup, 
the pineapple and the cocoanut : 
breadfruil ami bananas grow freely. 
The hau produces very strong and 
durable rope; the leaves of the pan- 
danus are used in braiding hats and 



mats; the ylang-ylang is well known 
for the perfume it yields. Among 
the vegetable products are rice, 
maize, sugar, cotton, indigo, castor 
oil and tobacco. 

About the only native animals are 
small rodents, hut the roe and the 
wild goat thrive, as do swine and 
oxen. There are no venomous 
snakes and the scorpions and centi- 
pedes are not dangerous. 

The population of Guam is esti- 
mated at 13,000; the inhabitants are 
for the most part Chamorros with a 
mixture of Tagal, Malay and Span- 
ish hi 1. speaking a Malay-Spanish 

dialect, hut English is rapidly gain- 
ing ground. The American occupa- 
tion is raising native standards. 
The lepers have been segregated, 
telegraphic communication has been 
improved, public schools established 
and a good hospital maintained. 
There is a Government agricultural 
experiment station at Agafia, the 
capital, which has paved streets, 
sewers and a water system and is 
connected with Apra, the only safe 
harbor, by a \t j <-y good road. 

The commandant of the naval sta- 
tion acts as Governor. The island 
has four administrative district-;. 
each with a commissioner as its 
executive head. Peonage has been 
hed and courts of justice estab- 
lished. The 1914 imports were val- 
l* d at $160,000 and the exports at 
$50,000. Guam is a port of transit 
between the United states and the 
Philippines and army transports call 
there at frequent intervals, some- 
times monthly. 



SAMOAN ISLANDS, llillll 



TI I E Samoan group is found in 
the South Pacific Ocean, 120 
miles northeasl of the Fiji 
islands; named by Bougainville 
"lies des Navigateurs," from the 
natives' skill in handling their 
canoes, it still appears on many 
maps as Navigators' Islands. The 
whole group numbers thirteen 



islands, for the most part mere 
rocky and barren Islets. By the 
Tripartite Treaty of 1899, all those 
easl of 171 deg. long, were turned 
over to the United States, which 
has had a naval and coaling station 
there since 1872. Germany retained 
possession of that portion of the 
group lying to the west of this 



UNCLE SAM'S NUN-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 



no 



meridian. The United States pos- 
sessions comprise Tutuila, with an 
area of 77 square miles and a popu- 
lation of 7,300; Ofu, Aunua and 
Olosenga, having together an area 
of some 25 square miles with ahout 
2,000 population ; and Rose Island, 
uninhabited. 

Pagopago, the capital of American 
Samoa, is on the south coast of 
Tutuila : its fine harbor almost di- 
vides the island into two parts. 
Tutuila is the best island of the 
entire group, of a mountainous char- 
acter, but possessing extensive 
forests. 

The natives of the archipelago are 
forbidden to sell land to thp whites, 
but are permitted to retain their 
own laws and customs in so far as 
these do not conflict with the laws 
and ordinances established by the 
Governor, who is also the naval com- 
mandant. He is authorized to ap- 
point officers, regulate the police and 
make ordinances dealing with such 
matters as the assessment of taxes 
and the importation of spirits. A 
body of seventy-five men, under a 
drill sergeant of the United States 
Navy, constitutes a native guard. 

The natives are of fine physique, 
but are indolent and very independ- 
ent, and the plantations have to be 
worked by imported labor. Hook- 
worm and the yaws are prevalent. 
but a great deal has been done 
toward the amelioration of these 
diseases, and much attention is paid 
to sanitation and the public health. 

There are four religious missions, 
with numerous sectarian schools; 



besides these, there is one govern- 
ment supported school and another 
largely maintained by the native 
population. The total number of 
schools is 83, with 2,000 pupils of 
both sexes. 

The political divisions are three — 
the Eastern, comprising eastern 
Tutuila and Aunua ; the Western, 
which is western Tutuila ; and the 
District of Manna, taking in Tau 
and its neighboring islets. Eaeh dis- 
trict has its native Governor: under 
him are the county chiefs, and under 
them the chiefs of villages. Each 
village has its own court. 



TaKa°-T« yf— -«Ap ,a 


SAMOA 


TUTUILA 

1 


MANUA IS 

r2° 



The products of American Samoa 
include cocoanuts, cocoa beans, 
bananas, breadfruit, pineapples, or- 
anges, yams and taro. the last being 
a plant with leaves similar to those 
of the water-lily, with roots that are 
baked and used as food. Some cot- 
ton, maize, sugar and coffee are 
raised for local consumption. Copra 
(dried cocoanuts) and cocoa beans 
are about the only things exported, 
the output of copra running to 1,500 
tons per annum ; this product is 
largely used as legal payment for 
taxes. 



PANAMA CANAL ZONE, 1904 



THE Panama Canal Zone, com- 
prising 430 square miles of ter- 
ritory, was acquired by pur- 
chase, February 20, 1004. the sum of 
$10,000,000 being paid to the Re- 
public of Panama. In addition. Pan- 
ama is to receive an annual pay- 
ment of $250,000 during the life of 
the treaty, beginning nine years 
after date of ratification. 

The Canal Zone begins at a point 
three marine miles from mean low 



water mark in each ocean and ex- 
tends five miles on each side of the 
center line of the route of the canal. 
It includes the group of islands in 
the Bay of Panama, named Perico. 
Naos, Culebra and Flamenco. The 
cities of Panama and Colon are ex- 
cluded from the Zone, but the United 
States has the right to enforce sani- 
tary ordinances and maintain public 
order there, in case the Republic of 
Panama should not be able to do so. 



PART II. 

OF HUMAN INTEREST TO ALL 
UNCLE SAM'S PEOPLE 



CHAPTER I. 
THE AMERICAN FLAG 

By ALBERT A. HOPKINS 

AND 

INSTRUCTOR H. C. WASHBURN 

U. S. NAVAL ACADEMY, ANNArOLIS, MD. 
FIRST PART BY THE EDITOR 



FROM the earliest time the flag 
has been of prime importance. 
According to Livy the cav- 
alry flag was a square piece 
of textile material fixed to the 
cross bar at the end of a spear. 
The Roman standards were guarded 






SHIELDS SHOWING HOW THE HERALDIC 

COLORS ARE TRANSLATED INTO 

BLACK AND WHITE 



with the greatest care and venera- 
tion, and were kept in the temples 
of the great cities, and after the 
advent of Christianity churches re- 
ceived them. All through mediaeval 



and modern history we find the fas- 
cinating trail of the standard under 
various names, which, like the 
"Oriflamrne" of France, have come 
down to us as a valuable heritage. 
Disregarding the history of flags 
in general we come to our flag, which 
is a modern flag in every sense of 
the word ; it has no myths or legends 
connected with it, and the Heralds' 
College has never been invoked in 
its design. Its bright colors are at- 
tractive and can be seen long dis- 
tances, which is not the case with 
all flags. Love for the flag has been 
fostered by State, school and church, 
so that nothing is more venerated in 
this country than the "Stars and 
Stripes." Great care has been taken 
by the Federal and State govern- 
ments to give the greatest possible 
protection for the national emblem; 
thirty-four States have legislation to 
preserve the American Flag from 
desecration, mutilation or improper 
use. The national flag must not be 
used for advertising, as a cover for 
a magazine, and the statutes of the 
United States forbid the use of the 
flag as a trade mark. 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



348 



OUR COUNTRt AMi ITS RESOURCES 



I be settlements in 1 1 1 « - thirteen 
original Slates were largely English, 
and the ceremonial flags of the col 
unies took the form of the English 
national standard of the period. ' in 
1643 the colonies <>r' Plymouth, Mass- 
achusetts Bay, Connecticut and New 
Haven formed an alliance called the 
"United Colonies of New England," 
and in 1686 they adopted the cross 
of St. George with a gilt crown over 
the monogram of James II. 




NEW ENGLAND COLORS, 1686 



As early as ITiki the colonies be- 
gan to use flags of their own design, 
the "pine tree" flag of New England 

being an example. There are vari- 
ous forms of this Hag. in one in 




PINE TREE FLAG OF NEW ENGLAND 



a pine tree in the firsl quarter. This 
tlag may have been used at the bat- 
tle "i Bunker Hill. Another varia- 
tion was a flag with a white ground 

and a green pine tree in the eenter. 




FLAG USED AT THE BATTLE OF 
BUNKER HILL (?) 

The rattlesnake was another favor- 
ite symbol in the Southern colonies, 
and there are many variations of this 
Hag. hut the head of the snake must 




stance the 

cross of st. 



rruiind was 
< Jeoree in 



blue with i lie 

lie center and 



THE RATTLESNAKE FLAG OF SOUTH 
CAROLINA 

always face the staff. The motto 
is usually •'Hunt tread on me." 
South Carolina bad a yellow Hag 

with the snake on it. 

An early tlag displayed in the 
South was a dark Pine flag with a 
white crescent, and was raised at 
Charleston, S. C, on September 13, 
177">. The word "Liberty" was a 
later addition ami was used at the 



THE AMERICAN FLAG 



349 



historic defense of Fort Sullivan 
(now Fort Moultrie). Charleston 
Harbor, June, 1776. 




These flags, so interesting to stu- 
dents of colonial history, were not, 
however, strictly speaking, the fore- 
runners of the "Stars and Stripes." 
The flag, as we have it to-day, is the 
result of an evolution. The most 
prominent features of the flag are 



THE CRESCENT FLAG OF FORT SULLI- 
VAN, CHARLESTON HARBOR, 1776 





EARLY AMERICAN FLAG OF THE REVO 
LUTION IN THE SOUTH, CHARLES- 
TON, S. C. 
Same as Loiig Island Battle Flag 



FLAG OF THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA 
COMPANY 

the bars. These are not. original, 
however, as we find them in the flag 
of the Dutch West India Company, 
and in 1704 the ships of the English 
East India Company carried flags 
with thirteen red and white stripes 
and the cross of St. George in the 
canton. 




FLAG OF THE DUTCH WEST INDIA 
COMPANY 



FLAG OF THE PHILADELPHIA TROOP OF 
LIGHT HORSE, 1775 



350 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



It has also boon suggested that 
the arms of Washington may have 
suggested the original form of our 
flag, but there seems nothing to sub- 
stantiate it. Tbe tirst known in- 
stance of tbe use of stripes was in 
the flag of the Philadelphia Troop of 
Light Horse. 177.~>. 

Tbis may have been suggested by 
the "Cambridge Flag," which Wash- 
ington raised ;it Cambridge on Janu- 
ary 2. 1 TT*>. This was truly the first 
American flag to show in concrete 
form the union of the colonies. 

There were thirteen alternate 
stripes of red and white, and in tbe 
canton was the combined crosses of 
St. George and St. Andrew. It is 
variously called the "Grand Union 
Flag," the "Greal Union Flair." and 
the "Union Flag." The name "Cam- 



upholsterer who was the reputed 
maker of our first flag. 





WHITE PLAINS BATTLE FLAG 
OCT. 28, 1776 

The facts, however, seem to have 
been these: On June 14. 1777. the 
American Congress adopted the fol- 
lowing resolution : 

Resolved, That the Sag of the thirteen 
United states be thirteen stripes, alter 
nate red and white; that the Union be 
thirteen stars, white on a blue field, rep 
resenting a new constellation. 



CONTINENTAL OR GRAND UNION FLAG 
RAISED AT CAMBRIDGE JAN. 2. 1776 

bridge Flag," however, appears to 
stick, and is eminently appropriate. 
This flag continued to be used until 
the Continental Congress adopted 
the "Stars and Stripes." The so- 
called "Betsy Ross" Hag. or the tirst 
"Stars and Stripes," is enmeshed 
with much romance, but the testi- 
mony as to the events rests pretty 
largely on the statements of Mrs. 
Ross herself and these are not sup- 
ported by contemporary writers. Her 
house still exists at 239 Arch Street. 
Philadelphia, and is eared for by 
the American Flag House and Betsy 
Ross Memorial Association, and is 
a memorial to the little widowed 




THE FIRST NATIONAL FLAG OF THE 

UNITED STATES. ADOPTED 

JUNE 14, 1777 

John Adams has the credit of pro- 
posing the committee that framed 
the resolution. Washington is said 
to have remarked. "We take the 
star from Heaven, the red from our 
met her country, separating it by 
white stripes, thus showing that we 
have separated from her. and tbe 
white stripes shall go down to pos- 



THE AMERICAN FLAG 



351 



terity representing liberty." This 
is pure bombast and is probably 
apocryphal. 

The design was not officially pro- 
mulgated until September 3, 1777. 
The stars were first arranged in a 
circle, but this gave way to three 
horizontal lines of four, five and 
four stars. This remained the na- 
tional emblem until May 1, 1795, 
when two more stripes and two more 
stars were added for Vermont and 
Kentucky. 

"The Star Spangled Banner" was 
written by Francis Scott Key (1779- 
1843). This national lyric was in- 




*z~ ^-y- ytr ~ - *~^ <^/~ *^ *■ ~£~A &bj£$£. 






a^j ^__l „^™.. 



'7- ^ jZr,f.Jj&t- ^-t £~J 



azA-ff. 







#■ 






3b 



-^/. «i-*- 






MANUSCRIPT OF THE "STAR SPANGLED 

BANNER" 

Fro., i Preble's "History of Hie Flag of tlie United Smtes of 

America." Hou-riiti n, Mifflin & Co., Publishers. 

spired when he witnessed the bom- 
bardment of Fort McHenry, Septem- 
ber 13, 1S14. He was trying to ob- 
tain the release of a friend who had 
been captured by the British. Key 
was on this expedition, which had 



approached under a flag of truce, 
when he was held temporarily on 




THE ORIGINAL STAR SPANGLED 

BANNER 

(Note fifteen stripes) 



O'er iM!^d^tt.!*>NJtH hon * j 






FIRST PUBLICATION "STAR SPANGLED 
BANNER" 



352 



OUR COT'XTin ANIi ITS RKSOTRCT.S 



his vessel, lest im disclose the in 
tended attack on Baltimore. He was 
compelled, therefore, to witness the 
bombardment through the whole day 

and night, and when he saw the 
national emblem still floating in the 
breeze In the morning, his muse com- 
pelled him to write this national 
anthem. The song was first pub- 
lished in the Baltimore American, 
September 21, 1814. Originally, the 
song was written on the back of a 
letter and was copied out in full 
at night, in a hotel in Baltimore. 
It was struck off in handbill form 
ami its popularity was widespread. 
Ferdinand Durang fitted the music 
of "Anacreon in Heaven" to the 
u ords. 

This remained the national flag 
for twenty-three years. It was used 
during the war of 1812. By 183 8 
live additional States were added: 
Tennessee. Ohio, Louisiana. Indiana 
and Mississippi were admitted into 
the Union, so that further changes 
in the flag were required. The act 
of April 4, 1818, provided first, "That 
from and after the fourth day of 
July, next, the flag of the United 
States be thirteen horizontal stripes. 
alternate red and white: that the 
union have twenty stars, white in 
a blue held." Second. •'That on the 




FLAG OF TWENTY STARS AND THIR. 
TEEN STRIFES 



admission of ev.ry new State into 
the Union one star lie added to the 
union of the flag; and that such ad- 
dition shall take effect on the 4th 
of July, next, succeeding such ad- 



mission." The rei urn to the thir- 
teen stripes was ilue not only to a 
reverence for the flag of the Revo- 
lution but also fo fhe fact that a 
further increase in the number of 
stripes would have thrown the flag 
out of balance, or would have made 
the stripes so thin that they would 
be indist inct at a distance. 

Since this time no change has been 
made in the flag except to add stars 
as required. In the war with Mex- 
ico the flag had twenty-nine stars in 
the union, thirty-five during the 
Civil War. and since July 4. 1912, 
forty-eight stars. Considerable con- 
fusion existed as to the way the 
stars should be placed. The official 
arrangement followed by the Army 
and Navy is as follows : 




THE "STARS AND STRIPES" OF TO-DAY 

"America" was written by the 
Rev. s. Francis Smith. I>.I>. Dr. 
Lowell Mason, one of the fathers of 
music in this country, turned over 
to Dr. Smith some foreign music and 
asked him if he found anything par- 
ticularly good to write words for 
the music. The latter found the tune 
of "(Jod Save the King," and wrote 
the remarkable lyric at Andover, 
Mass.. in February. 1832. It was 
struck out at a sitting with no idea 
of its future popularity. The first 
time it was publicly sung was at a 
children's celebration of American 
Independence, at the 1'ark Street 
Church. Boston, July I. i v -".'-'. 



THE AMERICAN FLAG 



353 



-*^2L- c-eH««^»v^ /Vi?" erf* J^r ce/ 



'•^r 



«*£, 












&®>6fy ^£jj£/y, 



The Confederate flags are of con- 
siderable interest. The first was 
known as the "Stars and Bars." 
This was adopted at Montgomery, 
March 4, 1861, the day Abraham 
Lincoln was inaugurated. It was 
found that this flag was too much 




&>-rtj- 6^ 



THE FIRST CONFEDERATE FLAG, THE 
•STARS AND BARS" 




ORIGINAL MS. OF "AMERICA" 
f ™ Preble's "History of the Flag of the I nited 
States." Houghton, Mifflin A; C ... Publishers. 



During the Civil War the flag 
came in for much attention and the 
stirring words of Secretary Dix may 
be reproduced herewith ; 




SECOND FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY 



;.-.» 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




THIRD FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY 

like the flag of the North to be 
readily distinguished, so a second 
flag was adopted, May. 1863. 

This also was found to be objec- 
tionable, having the appearance of 
a flag of truce, so a broad transverse 
strip of red was added, so we have 
the third flag Of the Confederacy. 
This was adopted February 1. 1865, 
The real battle flag was like the one 
pictured below. 




BATTLE FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY 

<>ur flag now waves over a united 
country and over colonial possessions 

of vasl territory and wealth, and has 
also waved over Morro Castle, when 
we set the Cubans \'n:o, hut it did 
not remain over that historic struc- 



ture, for we did not invade Cuba 
with any thought of conquest hut 
to free her from the oppressor. 

WHEN AM) HOW TO DISPLAY THE FLAG 
OF THi: VXITED STATES 

(Copyright by Louis A mi in Ames) 
HOLIDAYS 

Lincoln Birthday February 12th. 

Washington's Birthday ..February 22nd. 

Jefferson Day \pril 17th. 

Battle of LexingtODApril 19th. 

(Patriots' Day) 

♦Memorial Day May 30th. 

Flag Day June 14th. 

Battle of Bunker Hill. .June 17th. 

Independence Day Inly 4th. 

La Fayette Day.. September 6th. 

"Star Spangled Ban- 

ner"Day (Baltimore) September 13th. 

Paul Jones Dav September 23rd. 

Columbus Day October 12th. 

Battle of Saratoga October 17th. 




UNITED STATES FLAG FLYING OVER 
MORRO CASTLE, HAVANA, CUBA 

Surrender of Yorktown .October 19th. 
Evacuation Day (New 

York) November 25th 

•On Memorial Day. May 30th, the 
Flag should fly at half staff from sun 

rise to ii<. on and full stall from noon to 
sunset. 

stars and STRIPES 

is the official name of the national flag 
of the United States, in the Army our 
national flag is called tie' standard, also 
the Colors, When borne with another 
flag, the regimental color, the two ila.Lrs 
an' called a "Stand of Colors." In the 
Navy our national flag is known as the 
Dnited states Ensign. 
To show proper resped for the flag 

the following should he ohsor\ o| : 



THE AMERICAN FLAG 



35o 




Photo Harris & Ewing 
THE KEY HOUSE, 



GEORGETOWN 



DISPLAY 

The flag should not bo hoisted before 
sunrise nor allowed to remain up after 
sunset. 

At "Retreat" sunset, civilian specta- 
tors should stand at "attention"' and un- 
cover during the playing of the "Star 
Spangled Banner." Military spectators 
are required by Regulation to stand at 
"attention" and give the military salute. 
During the playing of the National Hymn 
at "Retreat" the flag should be lowered 
but not then allowed to touch the 
ground. 

When the flag is flown at half staff 
as a sign of mourning, it should be 
hoisted to full staff at the conclusion of 
the funeral. 

In placing the flag at half staff, it 
should first be hoisted to the top of 
the staff and then lowered to position, 
dropping it from the top of the staff 
the distance of the width of the flag, 
and preliminary to lowering from half 
staff, it should first be raised to the 
top. 

On ship board the national flag is the 
flag to be raised first and lowered 
last. 

Where several flags are displayed on 
poles with the national flag, the Stars 
and Stripes should be hoisted first 
and on the tallest and most con- 
spicuous staff. Where two flags are 
dislayed, one our National flag, it should 
be placed on the right. (To ascertain 
the right of a building, face in the same 
direction as the building.) No flag 
should ever be flown from the same 
staff as the United States flag, except in 
the Navy ; then only during Divine Ser- 
vice, when the Church Pennant may be 
displayed above the national flag — God 
above Country. 



When, in parade, the national flag is 
carried with any other flag, it should 
have the place of honor, at the right. 
If a number of flags are carried, the 
national flag should either precede the 
others or be carried in the center, above 
the others, on a higher staff. 

When flags are used in unveiling a 
monument, tablet or statue, they should 
not fall to the ground, but be carried 
aloft, forming a distinctive feature of 
the ceremony. 

When the national flag is used as a 
banner the union should lie at the right 
(as you face the flag). When used as 
an altar covering, the union is at the 
right (as you face the altar), and noth- 
ing should ever be placed upon the flag 
except the Holy Bible. 

The flag should never be flown re- 
versed except in case of distress at sea. 

rORTRAYING THE FLAG 

To properly illustrate the flag, the 
staff should always be at the left of the 
picture with the flag floating to the 
right. When two flags are crossed, the 
national flag should be at the right. If 
the national flag is pictured as a ban- 
ner, the union is at the right. 

SALUTE 

When the National colors are passing 




THE CHURCH PENNANT ONLY MAY FLY 
ABOVE THE STARS AND STRIPES 



::.-.i; 



OUR COUNTRY a\i» ITS RESOURCES 



,., paradi oi in review, tb< sp 
should, if walking, halt, and ii* sitting, 
arise ami stand at "attention" and un 
cover. 

The national salute is one gun for 
every State. . 

The international salute is. under the 
Law of -Nations. ^1 jiuris. 



c in shon the flag should do! he dipped 
by way of salute or compliment. 

URAL FLAG SALUTE 

"1 pledge allegiance to my flag and to 
the Republic for which it stands; 

One nation, indivisible, with liberty and 
justice for all." 




Trimming the Stars 



Zicr-zagging 
MAKING AMERICAN FLAGS 



Striping 




Courtesy of the 
liit. Film Co, 

MRS. VERNON CASTLE AS BETSY ROSS 



Part II. 

THE TROPHY FLAGS OF THE EXITED STATES NAVY 
By Instructor II. C. WASHBURN 

D. S. NAVAL ACADEMY 

AT the United States Naval seas, victories won by the consist- 
Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, ently maintained skill and efficiency, 
is the greatest collection of as well as by the traditional daring 
naval trophy flags in the world. and devotion to duty, of our officers 




BRITISH ROYAL STANDARD 

This gorgeous blazoning of the arms of England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, together with the arms of the Hanoverian dominions 
in Brunswick, Lunenburg and Saxony, is said to be "the only 
British Royal Standard ever captured in battle." And indeed, 
this great standard, which measures thirty feet by twenty-five, 
was taken at the attack on York I now Toronto), when that place, 
then the capital of Upper Canada, was captured by the squadron 
under Commodore Isaac Chauncey and a land force under Gen- 
eral Pike, April 27, 1813. Nevertheless, it should be remem- 
bered that the royal standard has for centuries ceased to be 
a battle flag, that it is used primarily to signify the presence 
of the sovereign, and that it was found at the Parliament House 
at York, where it awaited the visit of a member of the royal 
family. It was in retaliation for Chauncey's raid on York, and 
more "especially, perhaps, for the taking of the Royal Standard 
from the Parliament House, that the British sent General Ross's 
army against Washington in 1S14, and burned the public buildings 
at our capital. 



These old flags. ' one hundred and 
seventy-two in number, are the 
priceless symbols of our long honor 
roll of heroic victories on the high 



and men. Flags of Great Britain, of 
France, Spain. Mexico and Korea; 
United States ensigns flown on 
ships of renown : in one instance 



358 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



the Stars and Stripes side by 
side with the Stars and Bars of the 
Confederacy; their age, their faded 
colors, and the security of their re- 
pose as they hang in draped folds 



of the nation has been maintained 
by a navy whose traditions are im- 
perishable. 

Since 1847, the gradually increas- 
ing collection of trophies has been 



DONTGIVEUF 

HE SHIP 



THE BATTLE FLAG OF LAKE ERIE 

In the Flag Room at Annapolis, whose high ceiling and walls 

are ablaze with captured trophies, the place of h : is assigned 

to the "DON'T GIVE DP THE SHIP" flag; its message and Its 
story arc woven through the threadbare strands of every flag 
in the collection. This battle Han of the squadron under Master 
Commandant Oliver Hazard ferry, and his signal for going into 
action, was flown successively on his flagships the "Lawrence" and 
the "Niagara," at the battle of Lake Erie, September 10, 1MX 
Made al Erie by Perry's order, al the suggestion of Purser Samuel 
Hambleton, it hears on a dark blue field, in white letters 
rudely fashioned by the hands of jack tars, the dying words 
of Captain .lames Lawrence, mortally wounded in the action 
between the United Stales frigate "Chesapeake" and the P.ritish 
frigate "Shannon." When the British squadron came in sight of 
Perry's men. their commander jumped on a gun-slide, and ad- 
dressed the crew of the flagship: "My brave lads, this Max; 
bears the words of Captain Lawrence. Shall 1 hoist it':" Wild 
cheers from their bared throats were echoed from the other 
.ships of the squadron as the bunting was run up to the main- 
royal masthead. The men took their places at the guns. In the 
battle thai ensued, Perry saved the Great West, and won a 
complete victory, which enabled him to send his famous message 

to General Harrison: "We have met the enemy and I hey are 
ours two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." The 
flags of .-ill these Vessels are in the Navy Collection, hut the 

commanding position is assigned to this battle flag, with its 
message: "DON'T t;i\ E OP THE SHIP!" 

behind the glass of their exhibition kept at the Naval Academy, whore. 

cases, are significanl reminders that for many years, the flags were exhib- 

we are at peace with those who in ited in the old Naval Institute Hall. 

III.- past were enemies, and siunili- In 1900, however, when this building 

can! object lessons that the honor was aboul to he torn down, the 



THE AMERICAN FLAG 



350 



trophies were packed in sealed 
boxes, to await the day when they 
should be properly preserved, and 
placed on exhibition in the new 
buildings of the Naval Academy, in 
which alcoves and paneled spaces 
had been planned for their recep- 
tion. 

It was known that the flags, when 
packed away, wore in poor condi- 
tion, and it was feared that in spite 
of all precautions they would be 
damaged by moths. Efforts to have 



ings and grounds at the Naval Aca- 
demy, began a correspondence -which 
included the naval committees of 
Congress, patriotic societies, and the 
custodians of flag collections the 
world over. In the course of this 
correspondence, a letter was received 
from the Hon. Curtis Guild, ex-Gov- 
ernor of Massachusetts, in which 
Governor Guild named as his choice 
of an expert on flag preservation 
Mrs. Amelia Fowler, of Boston. At 
the request of Commander Cole, Mrs. 




JACK OF THE BRITISH FRIGATE "GUERRIERE" 

The "Guerriere," Captain James Richard Dacres, was defeated and cap- 
tured by the famous "Constitution," Captain Isaac Hull, on August 19, 
1812, in the first of the frigate actions of our second war witli Great 
Britain. "The sea-spell of England was broken," and although the 
"Constitution" herself fought two more splendid actions under the command 
of Bainbridge and Stewart respectively, against the "Java," and against 
the "Cyane" and the "Levant," the American people have never forgotten 
the first flush of pride which they felt when they heard the news of 
Hull's triumph. Among all the single-ship victories won by American 
naval officers in the War of 1812, the classic of the honor roll is the 
fight between the ship we have come to love as "Old Ironsides" and His 
Majesty's ship "Guerriere." 



them put in a permanent state of 
preservation were, however, unsuc- 
cessful, until 1911. 

To Commander William Carey 
Cole, U.S.N., more than to any other 
individual, but also to Captain John 
H. Gibbons, U.S.N., then Superin- 
tendent of the Naval Academy, who 
supported Commander Cole in his 
work, is due the credit for the ac- 
complishment of the restoration of 
the flags. Early in 1911 Commander 
Cole, as officer in charge of build- 



Fowler examined the flags in April. 
1911. She found them so seriously 
damaged by the ravages of moths, 
as well as the decay of age, that 
no ordinary method of preservation 
would suffice to insure their perma- 
nent existence. She accepted the 
contract for their preservation. 

Her special process consisted in 
spreading the tattered remnants of 
each flag upon a backing of heavy 
Irish linen of neutral color. This 
delicate work was guided by the 



360 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



original measurement of the Bag, by 
a knowledge of its design, and by 
placing in lines at right angles the 
disarranged strands of the warp and 
woof threads in the fragments of 
bunting. What remained of the 
original flag was then sewn firmly 
to ilic linen backing by needlewomen, 
under Mrs. Fowler's instruction and 



the original, the stitches, dyed to 
match the adjacent edges of the old 
bunting, complete the design of the 
flag, and tell graphically the story 
of the pieces that are gone. 

On April 8, 1912, Congress passed 
an ad appropriating $30,000 for the 
work of preservation and prepara- 
tion for exhibition. Shortly before 




ENSIGN OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES RAM 
"ALBEMARLE" 

This is the only Confederate Bag placed on exhibition in 
tin' great trophy collection "f the United States Navy, and 
it Mas been placed side bj side with the ensign of the 
United States sloop-of-war "Kearsarge," to symbolize the Union 
of the North and the South. The "Albemarle," long the terror 

of her enemy's w len vessels, was sunk with a spar 

torpedo handled from a pickel launch by Lieutenant William 
Barker Cushing, at Plymouth, Roanoke River, North Carolina, 
on the nighl of October -'7. 1864. Cushing, "the bravest of 
the brave," whose intrepid deed matches if it dors not 
excel the burning of the "Philadelphia" in the harbor of Tripoli 
by Stephen Decatur, by this one stroke put an end to the 
war in North Carolina. His well-nigh miraculous survival 
enabled him to see this trophy of his exploit, the flag down 
on the "Albemarle," which was taken shortly after his exploit. 
al the capture of Plymouth by the Union army. 



guidance. The stitches, of silk or 
linen thread, cover the entire sur- 
face of the flag, with circular 
meshes a network very strong, vet 
hardly visible, since the thread is 

carefullj dyed to match the colors 

of the old flag, however faded or 
stained in varying degrees. Where 

there are gaps "i- iiii>sinv; parts in 



this act was passed. Commander 
Cole held up. before the members of 
the House of Representatives, as an 
impressive witness, the disintegrat- 
ing fragments of Oliver Hazard 
Perry's battle-flag, the signal for 
going into action at Lake Erie. 
which hears the dying words of 
James Lawrence. "Don't <iive up 



THE AMERICAN FLAG 



::<;i 



the Ship." The sight of this trophy 
in such a deplorable condition was 
a final argument for the appropria- 
tion to which the House and the 
Senate could not but respond, and 
to which they responded with ad- 
mirable generosity. 

On July 12, 1912, Mrs. Fowler's 
needlewomen, who averaged forty 
in number began the arduous labor 
of sewing over by hand every square 



on the ground that the honor of 
cataloguing the collection fell to me, 
and as some account of the work of 
cataloguing, which occupied two 
years, is also requested, it seems 
proper to state that Commander 
Cole entrusted to me the work of 
verifying the identity of all the 
flags, discovering, if possible, the 
data concerning certain flags of un- 
known history, settling questions of 




ADMIRAL FARRAGUT'S FLAG 

This is the last flag hoisted by Admiral David Glasgow 
Farragut, conqueror of the Mississippi and victor of New 
Orleans and Mobile Bay. It was flown at the masthead 
of U.S.S. "Tallapoosa," his last command, and was hung 
at half-mast during the naval obsequies of George Pea- 
body, at Portland, Maine. Looking up at this flag as 
a. salute was fired at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 
Admiral Farragut's honor, he remarked, "It would be 
well if I died now, in harness." He died shortly after- 
ward, on August 14, 1870. Until very recently, when 
Congress established the rank of Admiral, the only officers 
of our naval service who flew the flag with four stars 
were Farragut, David Dixon Porter, and George Dewey. 



inch of the flags. Some idea of the 
magnitude of the task will be had 
when it is explained that the col- 
lection contains no less than 15,000 
square yards of bunting. The flags 
were completely restored, and placed 
on exhibition with great skill, by 
May 16, 1913. The work had occu- 
pied ten months. 

As I have been asked to write an 
account of the flags for this book 



the best plan of exhibition, and 
writing the official inscriptions, or 
the catalogue proper. When I took 
up this work, I found confronting 
me a task difficult in some ways, if 
not impossible. Evidence was not 
lacking that a considerable number 
of the flags had been confused with 
other flags. To mention a few of these 
cases — since corrected in every in- 
stance — the ensign of the British 



362 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



frigate Cyane was listed as the en- 
sign of the Gui rrirrc, and the jack 
of the Querru re was listed as the 
jack of tlic Cyane; there were five 
other errors in the identity of Brit- 
ish flags; even flags captured during 
the Spanish War had been incor- 



inscriptions on the hoists of the 
tia.i;s. by eliminating each certainty 
in identification as it appeared, and 
by collecting all possible information 
from individuals who knew certain 
flags, the problem aarrowed down 
to three or four cases. At last, these 




ENSIGN OF THE UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP 'MAINE 



The battleship "Maine," commanded by Captain Charles 
Dwighl Sigsbee, \v;is blown up while al anchor in the 
harbor of Havana, Cuba, <>n the n'v^M of February 1". 1898. 
This Bag— its colors intermingled by the action of salt water- 
was recovered from :i locker of the "Maine" after her 
destruction. It is thought to be the Bag lowered al sunset 
on the evening of February 15, 1898. So far :is is known, 
no poem Ikis been written about the flag of the "Maine" to 

stir tiu- bearts of Americans. Perhaps there is no n 1 of 

a poem to summon up the memory of that ship; monuments 
attesl the fame of her gallant dead, and her flag stands 
among the trophies of the Navy symbol of the honorable 
keeping of a nation's word, disclaiming desire tor conquest, 
and of the freedom uf Cuba. 



rectly labeled and cumbered. The 
old catalogue, published in 1888, was 
untrustworthy, and subsequent er- 
rors had made it virtually useless. 
Gradually, by dint of gathering all 



were disposed of by the discovery 
of some old drawings and photo- 
graphs. In the course of this work. 
the history <>t' all hut two of the 
flags of unknown history was de- 



the evidence available in the form of termined. 



CHAPTER II. 



AERONAUTICS 



By BARON L. d'ORCY, Mem. S. A. E. 



Static and Dynamic Aircraft — The Drift Balloon — Captive and Kite Bal- 
loons — Dirigible Balloons — History and Mechanics of the Aeroplane — 
The Development of Military Aviation — Scouting Aeroplanes — Fighting 
Aeroplanes — Bombing Aeroplanes — The Seaplane — Aeronautics in 
America 

STATIC AND DYNAMIC AIRCRAFT 



AERONAUTICS, the science of 
aerial navigation, and its vehi- 
cles, generically termed aircraft, 
subdivide into two distinct branches 
and types, respectively. The science 
dealing with machines whieb are 
supported by a gas lighter than air, 



i. e., static aircraft, is called aerosta- 
tion; its vehicles are the drift bal- 
loon, the kite balloon and the di- 
rigible balloon, all of which, it 
should be noted, possess the faculty 
of staying aloft without expending 
motive power. Tbe science dealing 




Photo Hollinger 

WILBUR WEIGHT 



Photo Hollinger 

ORVILLE WRIGHT 



Copyright by Muun & Co., Inc. 



364 



(HH COUNTRY AMi ITS RESOURCES 



with machines which are supported 
by the pressure onrushing air ex- 
erts on cambered surfaces, i. e., 
dynamic aircraft, is called aviation; 
its vehicles are the glider and the 
aeroplane, of which, however, only 
the latter possesses practical value, 
gliders being only used for experi- 
mental purposes. Unlike static air- 
craft the aeroplane cannot remain 
motionless in the air, for its ability 
to stay aloft is conditional upon its 
faculty to create air pressure by 
continuous motion. This obvious 
drawback may some day be obviated 
by the helicopter or direct-lift ma- 
chine, in which sustentation is 
sought to be attained independently 
of horizontal motion by the use of 
vertical lifting screws. This type 
of machine is still in its experimen- 
tal stage: such is also the case of 
of the omithopter or wing-flapping 
machine, which seeks to copy the 
movements of the bird's wing-beats, 
and of the soaring machine, which is 
supposed to fly by the use of favora- 
ble air-currents. 

THE DRIFT BALLOON 

The drift balloon (or aerostat i 
was invented by the Montgolfier 
brothers of Annonay, France, who 
built in 1783 a balloon supported by 
heated air. 

Before the close of the same year 
the crude hot-air balloon (called 
montgolflere) met a much more sci- 
entific rival which shortly succeeded 
in eliminating it : this was the char- 
Here, so named after the physicist 
Charles, who substituted hydrogen 
for hot air and invented nearly all 
the fitments of the modern aerostat. 
Hydrogen gas has a lifting power 
of about 60 pounds per 1,000 cubic 
feet and remains the most efflcienl 
static motor to the present day: hut 
as its production is expensive, sport- 
ing balloons are generally Inflated 
with co:il gas, which was invented 
in 1821 by George Green, of Eng- 
land. <'oal gas, however, lifts only 
about 35 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet 

A modern aerostat consists of an 



envelope, made of varnished silk, 
calico or rubber-proofed fabric im- 
pervious to gas, which is inflated 
through a long neck on the under 
side, called appendix. The envelope 
is surrounded with a net, the bottom 
of which is constituted by a SUSP* n- 
sion ring to which the wicker basket 
carrying the aeronauts is toggled 
with eight ropes. The top of the 
envelope is provided with a valve 
which allows part of the gas to es- 
cape whenever the aeronaut wishes 
to descend. Upon landing, the bal- 
loon must at once be disinflated in 
order to avoid being dragged; this 
is achieved by the ripping panel, 
which covers a vertical seam in the 
envelope and is operated by a rope 
whereby the balloon can be torn 
open instantly. 

The equipment of an aerostat com- 
prises : (li a guide-rope, which en- 
ables the pilot to maintain his verti- 
cal equilibrium, when near the 
ground, without expending ballast. 
the balloon being then relieved of 
part of its weight by the rope trail- 
ing on the ground: (2) ballast, con- 
stituted by sand carried in bags, and 
(3) various recording instruments 
such as a barograph, a statoscope, a 
compass, etc. 

In the days when self-propelled 
aircraft were inextant, the drift bal- 
loon had a wide usefulness not only 
in the tield of scientific and sporting 
achievement — where its value re- 
mains unimpaired — hut also as a 
vehicle of transportation. This was 
conclusively demonstrated during 
the siege of Paris in 1870-71, when 
the besieged garrison organized a 
balloon-mail service by means of 
which Pit voyagers amongst whom 
Gambetta- and 3,000,000 despatches 
were carried over the Prussian lines. 
Out of sixty-six balloons only five 
were captured by the enemy and two 
were lost in the Atlantic: and so 
meat was the moral and material 
success of this enterprise that Bis- 
marck threatened to shoot every 
aeronaut as a spy, and Krupp pro- 
duced the first anti-aircraft gun. 



366 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Although the dirigible balloon 
and the aeroplane have now entirely 
eliminated the drift balloon from 
military use, it seems certain that 
the aerostat will always retain its 
value for scientific and sporting 
achievements. 

CAPTIVE AND KITE BALLOONS 

The typical captive balloon is 
nothing but an aerostat which is 
maintained at a given height by a 




Courtesy of "Plying" 

FRENCH KITE-BALLOON ENGAGED IN 
"GUN-SPOTTING" 

cable attached to the ground. Such 
was the famous Entreprentmt, which 
afforded General Jourdan, command- 
ing the French army at the battle 



of Fleurus (1794)j such an excellent 
view of tlie enemy's movements, that 
it actually turned a near French de- 
feat into a brilliant victory. Such 
was also the gigantic sightseeing 
balloon Giffard built for the Paris 
Exhibition of 1878; this craft, which 
had a volume of 882,500 cubic feet, 
carried thirty-eight passengers at a 
time to a height of 1,600 feet, and 
was hauled down by a 300 horse- 
power steam winch. This balloon 
has remained the largest spherical 
of either drift or captive type. 

Contrary to what might be ex- 
pected, the lesson of the battle of 
Fleurus was lost to military science 
and it was only after the Franco- 
Prussian war that the military es- 
tablishments of the principal nations 
adopted the captive balloon for pur- 
poses of observation in held and 
siege warfare. In this function cap- 
tive balloons played a certain r61e 
during French and British colonial 
expeditions; nevertheless their use- 
fulness proved to be a limited one 
on account of their inability to stand 
up in a strong wind. 

The defects of the ordinary cap- 
tive balloon were overcome by two 
German army officers. Captains Par- 
seval and Sigsfeld, who produced in 
1898 the so-called kite-balloon — a 
craft which has proven so success- 
ful that it is now recognized to be 
an indispensable auxiliary of every 
up-to-date army and navy. 

The kite-balloon consists essen- 
tially of an elongated gas-bag which 
is divided into two unequal portions, 
the larger of which (Comprising 
about four-lift lis the total volume i is 
tilled with hydrogen; the remaining 
one-fifth constitutes the ballonnet, or 
air-cell, and this is automatically in- 
flated by the wind through a con- 
venient aperture. The ballonnet ful- 
fills two purposes: first, it creates 
within the gas-bag a sur-pressure 
equal to the pressure of the wind 
plus the static pressure of the hydro- 
gen, thus enabling the balloon to 
maintain its shape regardless of any 
wind the mooring cables can with- 



368 



OUK COI NTR1 AND lis RESOURCES 



stand: and secondly, air being much 
heavier than hydrogen, the air-cell 
causes the balloon to assume an in- 
clined position, which is particularly 
favorable for counter-acting the de- 
pressing tendency of the wind. In 
order to keep the crafl alv aj s bead- 
on to the wind a sausage-shaped air 
bag rudder is fitted to the rear of 
the envelope, which is inflated the 
same way as the air-cell: longitudi- 
nal stability is further insured by 
a number of sails and a device simi- 
lar t<> a kite's tail. 

The standard type of kite-balloon 
has a volume of from 25,000 to 35,000 
CUbiC feet, and it carries one or two 
observers who are connected by trie- 
phone with the artillery unit they 
are attached to. As a fire-control 
station for military, and even naval 
operations of a stationary character 
(siege, blockade, etc.), the kite-bal 
loon far surpasses the aeroplane, af- 
fording, as it does, a steady platform 
wherefrom held glasses or telescopes 

can he used to irreat advantage. 

In the Great War the kite-balloon 
is chiefly being used on the western 

front, where hundreds of them dot 
the rears of the Allies' and German 
lines. Their importance in effectu- 
ally regulating artillery tire was par- 
ticularly well demonstrated in the 
aerial operations which preluded the 
battle of the Soinine. A few daj s he- 
fore the big Allied "drive" began, 
British and French ti;;htim_ r aero- 
planes methodically attacked every 
kite-balloon which stood watch over 
the German lines in that sector, fif 
teen being set on tire and destroyed 
and the remainder being driven 
down. It was only after the German 
commanders had been thus deprived 
of their (ire-control stations that the 
Allied drive started with it- bom 
bardment and subsequent infantry 
attack. 

As kite-balloons do not possess any 
means of defense it becomes neces- 
sary to provide their occupants with 
parachutes so thai they might es 

cape with t heir lives should the h:i I 
loon he carried away by a storm or 



he set afire by enemy aviators. Not- 
withstanding the latter contingency, 
which incidentally can he neutral- 
ized in some measure by the co- 
operation of anti-aircraft l'iiiis and 
friendly fighting aeroplanes, kite- 
balloons appear to be decidedly su- 
perior to aeroplanes in the function 
of directing artillery fire because of 
the former's ability to hover over 
a place, which aeroplanes do not 
possess. 

DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS 

The dirigible balloon is the logical 
outcome of the Montgolfler brothers' 
ambition — which prompted their in- 
vention — to navigate the atmosphere 
at will in lieu of drifting slavishly 
before the prevailing wind. 

The basic elements of a dirigible 
are i 1 i an elongated gas-container, 
called hull or < /"•' /<//» . and so shaped 

in order to attain the greatesl sp I 

with the leasl expenditure of motive 
power; (2) one or more cars or no- 
celles containing the power-planl 
which drives a number of propellers, 
the fuel supply, the crew and the 
passengers, and eventually a com- 
mercial or military load; i ■"> i a sys- 
tem df connection between cars and 
hull: (4t such means as will assure 
the permanency of the hull's shape: 
and (5) such mean-; of control as 
will effectually regulate the Longi- 
tudinal and vertical equilibrium. 

A century elapsed before all these 
requirements could be successfully 
tilled. This is why the invention of 
the dirigible cannot he attributed to 
one sole man. hut is rather due to a 
series nf inventions, such as that of 
the ballonnet, of the stabilizing fins 
and of the horizontal rudder, and 
finally of the <ins>>ihi<- engine, which 
latter has. more than anything else, 
made the actual Mi'vi^ of the diri- 
gible possible. 

The existing dirigibles may be 
divided, according to their mode of 
construction, into two classes, viz.. 
i1i pressure airships in which the 
permanency of the hull is insured by 
maintaining within the flexible en 



AERONAUTICS 



::<;;> 



velope ;i pressure superior i<> the 
atmospheric pressure, ami i~i rigid 
or structure airships, in which the 
same object is attained by menus of 
a rigid framework covered with fab- 
ric which encloses a number of drum- 
shaped gas bags. Pressure airships 
further subdivide into vessels of the 




CROSS SECTION OF AN ASTRA-TORRES 

AIRSHIP, SHOWING MODE OF 

SUSPENSION 



non-rigid and semi-rigid type, accord- 
ing to whether the car or cars are 
directly hung from the envelope by 
means of steel cables or are sus 
pended from a metal keel attached 
to, or built into, the hull. Of the 
former type are the Astra-Torres, the 



Clement-Bayard, the Parseval and 
the Zodiac airships; the Crocco- 
Ricaldoni, the Forlanini, the Gross- 

Basenach and the Lebaudy dirigibles 
pertain to the latter. But whatever 
the mode of suspension, all pressure 
airships have as a common feature 
the ballonnet, a collapsible air-cell 
located at the bottom of the hull, 
which can be inflated with air by a 
ventilator whenever the gas con- 
tracts through a change of tempera- 
ture or of atmospheric pressure so 
that a constancy of displacement 
may be realized. The ballonnet com- 
pensates losses of volume, but not 
ones of lift (air being about four- 
teen times heavier than hydrogen); 
a decrease of lift can be made good 
only by jettisoning ballast (sand or 
water i. An excess of pressure with- 
in the hull caused by an expansion 
of the hydrogen is relieved by auto- 
malic valves, which are fitted to 
both hull and ballonnet; but as the 
ballonnet valves open at a less pres- 
sure than those of the hull an excess 
of pressure will first be relieved by 
an expulsion of air from the bal- 
lonnet. If, therefore, the latter has 
a sufficient capacity, no losses of yas 
will occur in the process of regulat- 
ing the vertical equilibrium. 

On sonic pressure airships two 
ballonnets are fitted, one fore and 
one abaft, which can respectively be 
pumped full of air and thus steer 
the vessel up and down by static 
means; it is more common, however, 




AERIAL NAVIGATION CHARTS 
(as shown on the left) are designed and colored to closely resemble the 
as seen from above {on the right) 



rround 



370 



OUB COl NTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 



to effect this function dynamically, 
i. c. by fitting the airship's stern 
with a horizontal rudder, called eh 
vator, which acts by the virtue of 
the pressure onrushing air exerts 
upon an inclined plane. In addition 




(riioto J. E. Watkins) 

OTTO LILIENTHAI'S BIPLANE GLIDER 

to an elevator and a vertical rudder, 
for steering right and left, most air- 
ships are fitted with horizontal and 
vertical fins, which serve the pur- 
pose of checking any pitching and 
yawing tendency. 

The engines used on airships dif- 
fer Imt little from the well known 
automobile type, except that partic- 
ular care is taken in their design 
to obtain the least possible weighl 
and a low fuel consumption : the best 
airship engines (Chenu, ('lenient 
Bayard, Maybach) do not consume 
more than one-half pound of fuel 
per horse-power in one hour. Pro- 
pulsion is effected b.\ air-screws, 
which are generally mounted on out- 
riggers on either side of the cars. 

Rigid airships need no halloiinet. 
the shape of their hull being ren- 
dered permanent by the framework. 
This system has the advantage of 
being supported by independent l'.ms- 
bags so that if one of these should 
accidentally become disintlated the 
airship could still continue its jour- 
ney. - This feature is, particularly 



valuable for military service and it 

has enabled many a Zeppelin — the 
most successful rigid airship to date 
—to escape destruction after having 
been hit by enemy tire. A remark- 
able proof of the value of the sec- 
tional construction of rigid airships 
was furnished by a Zeppelin which 
collided with a tree and had its how- 
ripped open by the impact', the dam- 
age was quickly repaired by taking 
off three front compartments and 
by lightening the front ear. where- 
upon the airship concluded its jour- 
ney, a matter of ninety miles. A 
similar accident, had it happened to 
a pressure airship, would have 
caused the destruction of the vessel. 

The great difficulty confronting the 

operation of Zeppelins is the moor- 
ing of these enormous vessels in the 
open, for unlike pressure airships 
they cannot he instantly disintlated 
in case of an impending hurricane: 
hut this drawback, which lias caused 
the loss of a score of Zeppelins, is 
now being overcome by the increased 
skill of the airship crews and by a 
perfected system of anchoring, but 




S. P. LANGLEY'S STEAM-DRIVEN AERO- 
PLANE MODEL WHICH FLEW IN 1896 
ABOVE THE POTOMAC RIVER A DIS- 
TANCE OF ;, .i MILE 

chiefly by a greal number of "air 

ports." which the Germans have tit- 
ted with elaborate sheds, hydrogen 
generating plants, workshops, >tc. 



AERONAUTICS 




On the left is shown the motorless glider on which O. Wright remained aloft for 

nine minutes ; on the right, the man-lifting kite of Capt. 

Sacconey used for military observation 



Before the Zeppelins had become 
notorious in the Great War as en- 
gines of indiscriminate destruction 
they achieved a more legitimate 
fame as pleasure craft. For several 
years previous to 1914 the German 
Airship Navigation Company of 
Frankfurt maintained between vari- 
ous German towns a highly success- 



ful passenger service in which no 
passenger ever lost his life, although 
several accidents marked the opera- 
tion of the air liners. The Zep- 
pelins engaged in this service were 
fitted with a luxurious cabin-car, 
seating twenty-four, and a cold res- 
taurant service was provided. A 
look-out post fitted on top of the 




AN EARLY EXAMPLE OF THE CURTISS "FLYING BOAT" 
SO horse-power engine; speed in air, CO miles an hour; speed on water, 50 to 60 miles an hour 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




(Photo E. L. Ovington) 

FRONT VIEW OF THE 50 H. P. GNOME 
ROTARY, AIR-COOLED MOTOR 

hull, which could be reached from 
the bow-car by means of a stairway 
enclosed in a chimney, enabled the 
airship commander to navigate by 
astronomical observation. 



While private enterprise thus de- 
veloped the air-liner the (ierman mil- 
itary authorities created the air- 
cruiser a Zeppelin in which the 
pleasant cabin-car holds bombs of 
the explosive and incendiary kind 
and mounts machine guns, and late- 
ly, even small quick-firers for ward- 
bag off enemy aeroplanes. 

Outside of Germany the value of 
the rigid air-cruiser with its great 
range and carrying capacity was 
either overlooked or contested, al- 
though in 1912 the first naval Zep- 
pelin covered on it- trial run a dis- 
tance of 1,200 miles in 31 hours, 
with a crew of -".1 and a wireless 
outfit carrying 200 mile-. 

When the war broke oul the Allies 
possessed only pressure airships of 
lew range and slew speed as com- 
pared to the dozen Zeppelins tier- 
many was able to line up: this ex- 
plains the marked superiority in 
long-range scouting the Germans 
possessed during the initial onrush 
on both fronts. The Allies clearly 




DETAILS OF AEROPLANE DESIGN 

On tk> hit a machine with folding wings; on the right, the armored nose, enclosing 
a rotary motor, of a military monoplane 



AERONAUTICS 



■at.; 



perceived their inferiority in this 
respect and also their inability to 
produce in a short time rigid air- 
ships which would meet the Zep- 
pelins on even terms ; so they set 
upon developing the bombing aero- 
plane and the anti-aircraft gun. 
Gradual improvement both in these 
weapons and in the skill of their 
operators soon cut short the Zep- 
pelin's value for overland scouting, 
reducing its activity to night raids 
on more or less defended towns, 
which achieved, however, little mili- 
tary damage. 

The greatest present asset of the 
Zeppelin seems to be its faculty to 
act as a fleet auxiliary for strategic 
reconnaissance, because it exceeds in 
this respect not only the radius of 
action but also the climbing ability 
of seaplanes. If it be realized (hat 
a Zeppelin can sec from a height 
where it is little vulnerable, lour 
times as far and travel twice as fast 
as the swiftest scout-cruiser, the ex- 
traordinary handicap the British 
Grand Fleet had to cope with in the 
battle of Jutland may readily be 
understood. 

Although of much less potentiality 
than the Zeppelins, the pressure air- 
ships of the Allies have been found 
very useful for anti-submarine de- 
fence, mine-sweeping and minor 
scouting operations. It seems, how- 
ever, that should the dirigible sur- 
vive in spite of the aeroplane, which 
is quite possible, the rigid system 
will likely prove the ultimate type, 
there being a limit of size beyond 
which it will be neither practical 
nor economic to build pressure air- 
ships. 

It is interesting to note how rap- 
idly standardized airships can be 
built in large quantities : since the 
outbreak of the Great War the three 
factories of the Zeppelin Company 
have turned out airships at the rate 
of one in three, four and five weeks, 
respectively. By July, 1916, one 
hundred and ten Zeppelins had been 
launched, including twenty-five prior 
to the war; it is true, on the other 



hand, that up to that date thirteen 
Zeppelins had been lost in times of 
peace and forty-two due to the 
agency of war. Owing to its great 
vulnerability the military future of 
the Zeppelin seems rather uncertain; 
its commercial possibilities, however. 
appear to be more promising for the 
immediate future and more especial- 
ly so for a trans-Atlantic service. 

HISTORY AND MECHANICS OF THE 
AEROPLANE 

The aeroplane is — just like the 
dirigible balloon — not so much one 
man's invention as the combined 
'•product resulting from experiments 




(Photo L. d'Orcy) 

TWO - SEATER SCOUTING AEROPLANE 
(160 H. P.) OF THE U. S. ARMY AVIA- 
TION SECTION STARTING TO GET OFF 



conducted and theories worked out 
for nearly a century by several 
schools of investigators. The funda- 
mental theory of the aeroplane was 
clearly set forth by an Englishman, 
Sir George Cayley, as early as isop, 
and actually furnished the basis 
upon which the modern aeroplane 
was subsequently built up. In 1846 
another Englishman, String 'fellow, 
gave a practical proof of this theory 
by building a small aeroplane model 
driven by a steam engine, which 
made several successful flights un- 
der perfect balance; this machine 
was, in conformity with Cayley's 
theory, a monoplane. In 1S66 F. S. 
Wenham, also of England, invented 
the multiple surfaced aeroplane and 
it was again Stringfellow who vindi- 



374 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



cated the claims of the new prin- 
ciple by a successful free flight of 
a triplane model. Further important 
contributions to the dynamics of the 
aeroplane were made by .1. P&naud, 
II. Phillips, sir Hiram Maxim and 
S. P. Langley, late secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution. The latter 
built, in 1903, a man-lifting aero- 
plane, which. 1 mt for its defective 
launching device, would have flown 
under control just as it did eleven 
years afterward with its original ro- 
tary motor. The first aeroplane to 
have actually left the ground, carry- 
in- a man, was the hat-shaped ma- 
chine with which ('. Ader, of France, 
made, from 1890 to 1896, several 
short flights. The balance of this 
machine, however, was poor, and it 
was only after the German O. Lilien- 
tluil had discovered by prolonged 
gliding experiments the means of 
controlling the balance of flying ma- 
chines that progress became practi- 
cal. Lilienthal's gliding experiments 
were repeated and perfected in this 
country, under the guidance of O. 
Chanute, by the Wright brothers, of 
Dayton, Ohio, who gave the aero- 
plane its one missing link, the warp- 
ing mechanism for insuring trans- 
verse equilibrium; having thus 
broughl the dynamic flyer under 
three-dimensional control, the 
Wright brothers lifted their glider 
with a gasoline engine driving twin 
propellers and succeeded in making 
their first power-flights on December 
17, 1903, on the beach of Kitty 
Hawk. X. C. The Wright brothers, 
therefore, fully deserve the credit of 
having rendered practical in other 
words, invented the aeroplane. 

The basic elements of an aero- 
plane are : ( 1 i the main surfaces, or 
Wings, of which there are one or 
more pairs (in the latter case super- 
posed or in tandem.) according to 
whether the machine Is a monoplane 
or multiplane (biplane, triplane, 
quadruplane, etc) ; (2) the auxil- 
iary surfaces or control organs which 
regulate the machine's balance and 
direction (ailerons, (ins. elevator 



and rudder i : (3) the bodywork or 
fuselage, which forms the bridge be- 
tween the wind's and tin' tail and 
affords accommodation for the pas- 
sengers, the fuel tanks, the navigat- 
ing instruments, etc.; t I) the power- 
plant, composed of one or more en- 
gines actuating one or more propel- 
lers, whose position ahead or abaft 
of the wings causes the aeroplane 
to be called a tractor or pusher; and 
(5) the undercarriage, which is tit- 
ted with either wheels or floats, or 
both, for starting from and alight- 
ing on land or water, or both. 

The seaplane or marine aeroplane 
is the invention of Henri Fabre, of 
Marseilles. France, who made the 
first flight from the sea on May 21, 
1910, at Martigues. The "flying 
boat," whose development is chiefly 
due to Giant II. CurtiSS and !/. lh it- 
haul, is a seaplane in which the 
bodywork is combined with a cen- 
tral boat of large flotation, thus do- 




il'liuto L. d'Orcy) 



AMERICAN-BUILT SPEED SCOUT FITTED 
WITH A 100 H. P. STATIONARY CUR- 
TISS MOTOR. HORIZONTAL SPEED. 119 
MILES PER HOUR. 



Ing away with a special undercar- 
riage. 

Particular credit for having ad- 
vanced the mechanics of the aero 
plane is due to Louis lib riot. E. 
Xi<iii»>rt, ./. Be~chereau and It. 
Saulnier (monoplane construction): 
to the Voisin and Farman brothers 
(development of (he pusher biplane) 
to Louis BrGguet and .1. I. Roe, the 



AERONAUTICS 



375 




THE ROLLING STOCK OF AN AEROPLANE SQUADRON 
On the left, a motor repair lorry; on the right, an aeroplane truck with its trailer 



originators of the tractor biplane, 
and to Gustave Eiffel, whose aero- 
dynamic research work has placed 
the aeroplane on a scientific basis. 
No less credit should go to the 
S4guin brothers for their invention 
of the Gnome motor, which has 
probably furthered the progress of 
aviation more than any other single 
invention and still appears as the 
prototype of the most promising 
aeroplane engine; and to L. Chau- 
rirrc. inventor of the wooden air- 
screw. 

Quite an important advance in 
aeroplane design was achieved in 
1913 by a Russian engineer, M. Si- 
Jcorski, who first conceived the idea 
of building aeroplanes of very large 
size, driven by several independent 
motors and capable of carrying a 
dozen people in a comfortable, heat- 
ed and lighted cabin. In this coun- 
try Glenn H. Curtiss has since suc- 
cessfully produced large seaplanes 
based on a similar principle. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY 
AVIATION 

As soon as the aeroplane had 
proved its ability to effect voyages 
with sufficient reliability and its 
range, carrying capacity and climb- 
ing ability increased, military au- 
thorities all over the world were 
prompt in adopting it for purposes 
of reconnaissance. It was in this 
function that the aeroplane made 
its dehut in the Great War and the 



services it rendered were so im- 
portant that all the belligerents 
quickly decided upon greatly enlarg- 
ing their aerial establishments. As 
specific examples of the work achiev- 
ed by scouting aeroplanes one might 
mention how in the battle of Mons 
the British expeditionary force was 
saved from envelopment and possible 
annihilation by an aviator who re- 
ported that the Germans had twice 
the numbers that had been antici- 
pated. Again, at the battle of the 
Marne it was an aeroplane recon- 
naissance which disclosed the gap 
between Von Biilow's and Von Hau- 
sen's armies, and thus enabled Gen- 
eral Foch to drive a wedge into the 
German lines, forcing them to re- 
treat. 

The examples cited sufficiently 
emphasize the value of the aeroplane 
for scouting; but as both Allies and 
Teutons went to war provided with 
"aerial eyes," each party soon felt 
the need of preventing the enemy 
from seeing — and forestalling — the 
friendly moves. Such was the in- 
ception of what is to-day termed a 
"fighting machine." Then the neces- 
sity arose of destroying an impor- 
tant supply station or a railway 
junction of the enemy, which ob- 
ject could not otherwise be reached 
than by attacking the place fron 
above: this necessity created th< 
bombing aeroplane. 

Originally there were no special 
machines for the manifold duties 



376 



ttVli COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



of scouting, fighting and bombing, 
every aeroplane being supposed to 
carry out all or any duty as the 
necessity arose. As a result qo aero- 
plane was really efficient in any func- 
tion. Curiously enougb the Germans 
still adhere in some measure to this 
theory which the British and French 
air services rejected early in the 
war. 

SCOUTING AEROPLANES 

The modern scouting aeroplane. 
as developed by the Allies, is a two- 
seater of great speed rang* — else a 
detailed inspection of the underlying 



is as a rule a highly trained special- 
ist, who must he able to distinguish 
from a beight of several thousand 
feet a convoy train from artillery. 
field guns from howitzers, or a sup- 
ply station from an aircraft park, 
and he conversant with the Morse 
code, so that he may instantly send 
off hi- report by wireless telegraphy. 
To fly hack to headquarters would 
mean too much loss of time. The 
observer's duty is the more difficult 
as the enemy below will do every- 
thing t<» mislead him. by setting up 
dummy guns and holding hack his 
gun tire while the aeroplane hovers 




FIXED MACHINE GUN EMPLACEMENT OF A FRENCH FIGHTING AEROPLANE 



objective becomes Impossible— whose 

only task consists in observing a 
given objective and reporting the re- 
sult in the quickest way possible. 
Its armament is purely defensive 
and generally consists of one ma- 
chine gun firing broadsides and 
abaft (on tractors! or ahead (on 
pushers). The crew is composed of 
a pilot and an observer; the latter 



above; troop columns on march will 
Stop and seek shelter: positions 
which cannot he masked will he de- 
fended by anti-aircraft guns or pos- 
sibly by fighting aeroplanes which 

the observer will have to fight Off 
with his machine gun. 

And reconnaissance is not limited 
to Doting the movements and 

strength of enemy forces; it includes 



AERONAUTICS 



377 



"gun-spotting," which consists in con- 
veying to the artillery the exact 
range of an objective to be shelled. 
These manifold duties of the ob- 
server explain why a scouting aero- 
plane must be a two-seater : the pilot 
is indeed kept busy enough in trying 
to keep to his right course while 
dodging anti-aircraft shells by flying 
in erratic zigzags. 

Although anti-aircraft guns have 
greatly improved in precision during 



crossing the enemy lines at only 2,- 
500 feet altitude and still was able 
to effect a safe return. 

The wartime services of an aero- 
plane may attain a period of three 
to six months, although a good many 
machines last but a few weeks ; ro- 
tary motors last 100 to 150 hours of 
service, provided they are thorough- 
ly taken apart and cleaned after ev- 
ery 20 hours of service. Stationary 
engines last a good deal longer. 




FRENCH AVI0N-CAN0N MOUNTING ONE 1V 2 IN. Q. F. GUN 



two years of warfare — of which the 
monthly lists of the belligerents' air- 
craft losses bear eloquent, testimony 
— nothing short of a direct hit into 
a vital part will down an aeroplane, 
provided its petrol-tank has not been 
set afire. Shrapnel balls and rifle 
bullets are little effective against 
aeroplanes flying at a height of 
10,000 feet ; a French scouting ma- 
chine received 400 bullet holes while 



The tactical unit of the aviation 
service is the squadron, which con- 
sists (in the United States and Brit- 
ish armies) of twelve machines of 
the same type, twelve motor trucks 
with their trailers for land trans- 
portation and of a repair-car, and 
several automobiles and motorcycles. 
The squadron subdivides into three 
companies (flights in the R. Flying 
Corps) of four machines each. 



OUB COUNTRY A.\I> ITS RESOURCES 



TABLE SHOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE ZEPPELIN AIRSHIP 



Year 



1 '.ii ii i 
1905 
I §08 
L910 
1912 
1914 
1916 



Lengl b 
Peel 



420 
420 
446 
485 

:, is 
518 

7M) 



Beam 
Feel 



38 
38 1 
I _• 6 
10 

48.5 
54 . 4 
SO 



Total Lift 

(Tons) 



li> 8 
U 'i 
17.0 
21 8 
L\-> 1 

30 .", 
til .0 



H. P. 


Speed 




Miles 


:;l> 


15 


170 


25 


210 


28 


330 


:;.-. 


600 


47 


S( II 1 


53 


1,500 


65 



WORLD'S KKCORDS FOR AIRCRAFT 

(Those marked * are not recognized by the international Aeronautic Federation) 
I )i a i \m i: (Cross ( 'omit • j 

Aeroplanes 646 miles, by A. Seguin, Paris-Boidcaux-Paris. on Oct. 13th, I'M.;. 

(H. Farman pusher, so h. p. Gnome). 

Dirigibles 745 miles* by the Italian Army airship M-2 on Oct. 14th, 1913. 

Drift balloons 1896.97 miles by Berliner, Bitterfeld to Bisserstk, Russia. Feb 8 

10th, 1914. 

Duration (Non-stop) 

Aeroplanes 21 hrs., 48 min., by W. Landmann. at Johannistal (Germanj on 

June 26-27th, 1914. (Albatros biplane tractor. 75 h. p. Mercedes, i 

Dirigibles 35 hrs.. 20 min., by the "Adjutant-Vincenot" I French army ship), 

on June 27th, 1914. 
Drift balloons .87 hrs., by Hugo Kaulen, Bitterfeld to Perm (Russia), on Dec 13- 

17th, 1913. 

Speed over Closed Circuit 

Aeroplanes 126.67 miles per hour, by M. Prevost, at Reims (France) on Sept. 

29th, 1913. (Deperdussin monoplane, 160 h. p. Gn6me 

Dirigibles 58 m. p. h.* by the Italian army airship V-l, in Feb.. L915. 

Altitude 

Aeroplanes 21,471 ft., by E. Audemars, at Tssy, France, on Sept. 8th, 1915. 

t Morane-Saulnier parasol monoplane, 80 h. p. l.e Rhone.) 

Dirigibles 10,728 feet*, by the Italian army airship M-l in Feb., 1915. 

Drift balloons 34,433 feet, by Suring and Berson at Berlin, on June ilst. 1901. 

Oversea 
320 miles* — St. Gran, from Cruden Bay (Aberdeenshire) to Kleppe near stavangcr 
(Norway), on .Inly 30th, 1914. Bleriot monoplane. 



FIGIITIXO AF.ROPT.AXF.S 

Although scouting aeroplanes do 
carry defensive armament, it often 

becomes necessary to protect them 
against a concerted enemy attack. 
Such is the function of the fighting 
aeroplane, a high-speed, single-seat- 
er tractor, which <•,■ ut-fly and out- 
climb any other type of machine. 
The pilot aims the machine-gun, 
which is rigidly fixed in front of 
him, by steering the aeroplane 
against the target ; the blades of the 
air-screw are armored and thus de- 
flect the bullets which hit them, in 
this way about 30 per cent of the 
bullets go astray. This gun-mount- 
ing, which was invented by R. Gar- 
ros, the famous French .airman, litis 
since been adopted by the Germans 
on their Fokker monoplanes with the 



one variance, however, that the gun 
is connected with a timing device 
actuated by the motor, so that it 
can lire only when the blades of 
the air-screw do not cover the muz- 
zle. 

Quick maneuvering ability being 
one of the chief assets in aerial com- 
bat, it follows thai fighting aero- 
planes must be highly sensitive, in 
other words, neul rally equilibrated, 
SO as to instantly respond to control : 
this is why only pilots showing par- 
ticular aptitude for aerial combat 
are entrusted with the operation of 
fighting machines. 

In addition to protecting scouting 
machines, fighting aeroplanes .'ire 
also used for destroying kite bal- 
loons, convoying bombing machines 
on raids and even attacking Zep 



AERONAUTICS 



:;T!t 



pelins. Two Zeppelins were thus de- 
stroyed from small combat machines 
carrying but a few bombs, by the 
late Flight-Sub-Lieut. R. Warneford, 
R.N.A.S., and Lieut. W. L. Robinson. 
R.F.C., respectively, whereas aero- 
planes of all types, as well as kite 
balloons, have been lost by the chief 
belligerents in numbers aggregating 
several hundreds. 

BOMBING AEROPLANES 

Fighting aeroplanes are but oc- 
casionally used as bombers and more 
especially in cases where quick 
climbing is imperative. Bombing 
raids proper are carried out by so- 
called bombing aeroplanes, in which 
high speed is forsaken in favor of 
great carrying capacity. The load 
of explosives such a machine carries 
can be apportioned either into a 
great number of light bombs or else 
into a few powerful missiles, some 
of which weigh as much as 300 
pounds. 

Considering the first two years of 
aerial operations it appears that the 
French and the British achieved in- 
contestable aerial supremacy in 
scouting and fighting only toward 
the close of this period ; it is there- 
fore the more striking that the action 
of bombing aeroplanes, in other 
words the aeroplane offensive, should 




COCKPIT, MOUNTING A MACHINE GUN, 
OF A BRITISH BOMBING AEROPLANE 



have belonged practically all the 
time to the Allies. The big bombing 
raids by French and British aero- 
plane fleets — some of them composed 
of fifty and sixty machines — against 
the airship sheds, railway junctions, 
shell factories, supply stations, sub- 
marine bases and coast defense 
works of the Germans, in the course 
of which immeasurable moral and 
material punishment was inflicted, 
certainly appear as one of the most 
striking phases of aerial warfare. 

An indication of what the battle 
aeroplane of to-morrow might be, is 
furnished by the French avion-<<i- 
non; this is a large pusher, mount- 
ing on its bow a 1^-inch quick fire 




SEAPLANE UNDER CARRIAGES 
On the left, a "twin-floater ;" on the right, a "flying-boat" 



380 



OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



gun, which fires an incendiary shell, 
and is chiefly used for shooting 
down kite-balloons. 

THE SEAPLANE 

The functions of the seaplane ar^ 
to all intents similar to those of 
the aeroplane, viz.. scouting in ad- 
vance of fleets and naval liases. 
clearing the skies of enemy aircraft 
and bombing the enemy's coast es- 
tablishments. 

Seaplanes work under a double 
handicap: lirst. all other elements 
being equal, their heavy floats great- 
ly decrease the useful load which 
might otherwise be utilized for in- 
creasing their range or their load of 
bombs, and secondly, the design of 
seaplane-floats is not yet sufficiently 
advanced to permit alighting on or 
starting from a rough sea. Con- 
sequently flights of several hundred 
miles' length, which are common 
enough over land, are infinitely more 
difficult to carry out over the sea: 
this is why all seaplane operations 
have — unlike the work of land ma- 
chines — occurred in close proximity 
of permanent bases or mother-ships. 

Notwithstanding their limitations 
seaplanes have rendered exceeding- 
ly useful services as tleet auxiliaries. 
particularly in the Gallipoli cam- 
paign, where gun-spotting seaplanes 
directed the Allies" guns on targets 
invisible but from the air. Sea- 
planes have also played a notable 
role in patrolling the coasts of the 
warring nations and in detecting and 
even destroying submarines and 
mines. And in the battle of Jutland 
tin- work of a solitary British sea- 
plane pilot was recommended by 
Nice-Admiral I'.eatty in the follow- 
ing terms: "Lieut. V. J. Rutland, 
i;. X.. for bis gallantry and per- 
sistence in flying within close range 
of four enemy light cruisers, in 
order to enable accurate Informa- 
tion to be obtained and transmitted 
concerning them. Conditions at the 
time made low Hying necessary." 

The present trend in (lie design 
of seaplanes (as well as of aero 
planes) appears t<> be toward ma- 



chines propelled by several motors 
and propellers, the purpose of which 

is to keep the machine aloft or at 
least capable of returning to its base 
even if one motor should break down 
or lie destroyed bv the enemy. 




THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN TROPHY 

donated with tj bject <>f fostering the 

:irt of aerial navigation, is now in the 
permanent possession <>f Mr. Glenn II. ("ur- 
tiss, who won it three times in succession. 



AEKoN IUTICS 1 \ A.MIKH \ 

The Greal War lias had a very 
beneficial influence on the American 
aircraft industry; millions of dollars 
worth of aeroplanes and motors were 



AERONAUTICS 



381 



purchased in this country by the 
Allies, chiefly for training purposes, 

and the profits derived thereby have 
enabled American manufacturers to 
develop aeroplanes and engines 
which begin to compare favorably 
with the products of Europe. Among 
the aeroplanes thus produced one 
might mention the huge multiple en- 
gined "flying boats" of Glenn H. 
Curtiss ; a machine of this type is 
now being developed for crossing the 
Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ire- 
land, a distance of 1,800 miles. 

The important services the aerial 
arms have rendered to the warring 
nations has awakened the American 
public to the realization that the 
United States needs — and has so 



far lacked — an air service adequate 
to its policies; as a consequence the 
Aero Club of America instituted the 
National Aeroplane Fund which, 
thanks to the generosity of patriotic 
citizens, has enabled the National 
Guard of various States to acquire 
aeroplanes and train aviators, and 
Congress appropriated a sum of over 
$15,000,000 for the development of 
aeronautics in the Navy and Army. 
On July 13, 1916, President Wilson 
crowned these measures by creating 
the Aerial Reserve Corps, which is 
nothing short of an aerial militia. 
The Post Office Department is fur- 
thermore considering the establish- 
ment of several aeroplane- mail 
routes. 




AEROPLANE TYPES 
On the left, a flying boat ; on the right, a tractor biplane 



CHAPTER III. 
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 



By AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA 



NO list of the greatest modern 
inventions fails to include 
wireless telegraphy and tele- 
phony. And it is perhaps equally 
true to state that no invention is 
regarded with as great awe by the 
laity. Yet wireless communication 
in its essentials is simple. There is 
nothing truly mysterious in wireless 
or radio telegraphy and telephony. 

MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF 

WIRELESS 

The real beginning of wireless 
communication, or rather the propa- 
gation of electric waves through 
space and their subsequent detection 
at remote points, is largely a matter 
of opinion. Some authorities prefer 
to look upon Steinheil of Munich, 
Germany, as having taken the first 
step toward radio communication. 
For in 1838, Steinheil, following the 
suggestion of Gauss, demonstrated 
the feasibility of using the ground 
as the return circuit for a wire tele- 
graph system, which in a measure 
is a form of wireless telegraphy in 
the embryonic state; and what is 
more, the work of Steinheil caused 
much attention to be directed to the 
possibilities of communication with- 
out wires. Such names as Trow- 
bridge, Preece, Rathenau, Strecker, 
Morse, Lindsay, Wilkins, and Mel- 
huish have been associated with the 
conduction of electric currents 
through bodies of water and througb 
moist earth, largely through the in- 
spiration offered by Steinheil's pio- 
neer work. 



Aside from the conduction method 
of communication suggested by the 
experiments of Steinheil, electro 
magnetic induction between parallel 
metallic conductors was suggested 
and studied by Trowbridge, Preece, 
Lodge and Stevenson. A combina- 
tion of the conduction and induc- 
tion principles also was the subject 
of much experiment, and under the 
guidance of Sir William Preece. aid- 
ed by the British Postal Telegraph 
Engineers, it became the basis of a 
workable system of wireless com- 
munication for short distances. How- 
ever, for several reasons this system 
did not lend itself to commercial 
purposes, and hence nothing came 
of it. Still another workable sys- 
tem of communication without wires 
was developed by Edison, Gilliland. 
Phelps and W. Smith, utilizing the 
principle of electrostatic induction 
between conduct* »rs spaced some dis- 
tance apart. The latter system was 
primarily intended as a means of 
communication to and from moving 
railway trains. 

However brilliant may have been 
the conceptions of the various pio- 
neer systems already referred to, the 
real dawn of commercially practi- 
cable wireless communication came 
witl the scientific investigation of 
electromagnetic waves, resulting in 
a clear understanding of the genera- 
tion, propagation, and detection of 
these waves. Credit in large meas- 
ure is due Maxwell, who, in 1865, 
announced his remarkable electro- 
magnetic theory of light. But Max- 



Copyriglit by Munn & Co., Inc. 



3S4 



OtJR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



well's work, despite its profundity 
and its rich and invaluable collec- 
tion of mathematical data, was pri- 
marily theoretical. As a result, its 
full value as applied to the propa- 
gation of electromagnetic waves was 
not realized until 1888, when Hertz's 
discoveries and practical investiga- 
tions again attracted attention to 
the subject. The work of this young 
German scientist corroborated the 
theories of Maxwell ; and so rich 
in possibilities was the field opened 
by Hertz that numerous scientific 
workers in various lands set upon 
the task of acquiring further knowl- 
edge of the properties of the electro- 
magnetic waves. 

Among the early workers in the 
field of electromagnetic transmission 
of power was Nikola Tesla, who, in 
is'.):!, conducted a series of specta- 
cular experiments on high frequency 
electric currents. In passing it must 
not be forgotten that Prof. D. E. 
Hughes, according to a paper pre- 
pared by Sir William Crookes in 
1S92, developed a system of trans- 
mitting signals a few hundred yards 
without connecting wires, using a 
microphonic detector and telephone 
receiver for the receiving station. 
It appears that Prof. Hughes dis- 
covered the remarkable property of 
loose-contact filings to cohere under 
the influence of electromagnetic 
waves as far back as L879; but be- 
cause of the fact that he did not 
give his work sufficient publicity, 
some twelve years later Prof. E. 
Branly of Paris received all the 

credit for the wireless coherer, which 
played the leading pari in the pio- 
neer days of actual radio communi- 
cation. Using Branly's coherer as 
a basis, wireless communication at- 
tracted the attention of Dr. A. Muir- 
head, ('apt. II. R. Jackson. R.X.. and 
Prof. U. Threlfall. as well as I'rof. 
A. S. Popoff of the Imperial Torpedo 
School in Cronstadt, Russia, besides 
many other lesser known investi- 
gators. 

Yet all that had been done until 
this time was more in the nature of 



laying a substantial foundation for 
what was to follow. Much of the 
work was indeed practicable; but 
none of the investigators had settled 
down to the development of com- 
mercial wireless communication. 

Then came Marconi. This young 
Italian scientist, born at Bologna, 
was keenly interested in the work 
of Prof. Rhigi of the University of 
Bologna, and it gave him the idea 
for commercial wireless telegraphy. 
June, 1895, witnessed the young 
Italian experimenting with sending 
and receiving apparatus on his 
father's estate, the Villa Griffone, 
near Rologna. To relate in detail 
the ramifications of Marconi's early 
work would require far more space 
than can be devoted to this entire 
wireless chapter, for the work he 
undertook was slow and painstaking. 
Although he had the advantages of 
using various ideas developed by the 
early investigators and of combining 
these into a wireless system, each 
idea by itself was crude and had 
to be systematically developed. 
These distances, covered with Mar- 
coni's early apparatus, speak vol- 
umes for the rate of progress made 
by him: 1895, 30, 100, and 2,400 
meters, or 1% miles: 1897, 14 miles; 
1898, 20 miles: 1899, 85 miles: 1900, 
well over 100 miles: 1001. trans- 
atlantic transmission of the letter 
"s" in the Morse code, over a dis- 
tance of 2,200 miles. In the years 
that followed, the progress made 
was so rapid that long-distance com- 
munication has now become quite 
commonplace. 

Radio telegraphy, as we know it 
to-day, is not the invention of any 
one man. Not unlike all other great 
inventions it represents the labors 
of numerous investigators and in- 
ventors, many known to us and many 
more unknown to us. Among the 
better known later-day contributors 
to wireless telegraphy are Lodge. 
Muirhead. Salby. von Arco. Rraun. 
Fleming, Fessenden, DeForest. Stone, 
Shoemaker. Blondel, Artom, Pick- 
ard. von Repel. Poulsen, and Pierce. 



386 



(ill! COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TEAVEL 
THROUGH SPACE 

it would be difficult to explain 
how electromagnetic waxes, which 
arc not susceptible to our senses, 
travel from a wireless transmitter 
to a receiver at the astounding rate 
of 186,300 miles per second, were it 
not for the simple analogy offered 
by a body of still water. 

Suppose a stone is thrown into 
a quiet pool of water. It will be 
noticed that waves or ripples form 
in perfect circles around the spot 
where the stone struck the surface, 
spreading out in ever-widening cir- 
cles from the source. The ripples 
near the center are big and readily 
seen, while those some distance away 
are small and barely discernible, 
finally disappearing altogether, pro- 
vided the body of water is sufficient- 
ly large. In other words, the rip- 
ples are largest near the source of 
disturbance, but lose their strength 
in a gradual decrease the farther 
they are removed from the source. 

Although according to appearances 
the waves or ripples appear to form 
at the spot where the stone hit the 
surface, spreading out in ever-widen- 
ing concentric circles, as a matter 
of fact they form at the immediate 
point where they appear. There is 
absolutely no transference of water 
from the center outward. Instead, 
a certain amount of mechanical en- 
ergy is transmitted through the body 
of water, producing waves or rip- 
ples at intervals. The water merely 
acts as the conductor for the energy 
imparted to it by the impact with 
the stone. This may he readily 
proved by placing a small chip of 
wood at any spot a short distance 
from the source of the disturbance: 
it will lie noted that the chip re- 
mains in the same spot, although it 
rises and falls following the up and 
down or rolling motion of the wa- 
ter upon which it rests. If there 
Were the actual movement of the 
water from the center outward, the 
chip, obviously, would move along 
with the moving water 



.Much in the same manner do elec- 
tromagnetic waves react upon space, 
or. to use the name given to the 
medium through which these waves 
are propagated, ether. Nothing act- 
ually moves through ether in the 
transmission of signals by wireless; 
instead, the transmitting apparatus 
imparts energy to the ether, which 
in turn vibrates in much the same 
manner as the pond of still water. 
The vibrations spread through the 
ether in every direction, following 
the contour of the earth, until the 
force is spent. Ether, it is well to 
mention here, is a substance or medi- 
um imagined by physicists in order 
to explain the phenomena of light, 
radiant heat, and electromagnetic 
waves. The waves employed in 
radio communication range from 300 
feet to 30,000 feet in length, meas- 
ured from one crest to the next, 
just as in the instance of the rip- 
ples on a pond. X-rays, on the other 
hand, have a length of about 2.5 
millionths of an inch ; actinic rays 
of the maximum intensity, 10 mil- 
lionths of an inch : light rays, from 
10 to 18 millionths of an inch: and 
heat rays of maximum intensity, 
about 15 millionths of an inch. 

WIRELESS TKANSMITTERS AND RE- 
CE1V! ECS 

For wireless communication it is 
necessary to have a means of creat- 
ing and imparting electromagnetic 
waves to the ether, and a means of 
intercepting and detecting these 
same electromagnetic waves at a re- 
mote point. The former is called 
a transmitter, or sender, while the 
latter is known as the receiver, or 
receptor. 

The most common form of trans- 
mitter is one in which the elect ro- 
magnetic waves, created by the 
discharge of a condenser across a 
suitable air gap, are imparted to the 
ether by means of an elevated sys- 
tem of Insulated conductors known 
as an aerial, and a connection with 
the earth or ground. The condenser 
receives its charging current from a 
transformer or induction coil, and 



:;^s 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl'IiCKS 



whenever it becomes overcharged it 

discharges an instant later across a 
gap in circuit with it. Since the 
length of the wave generated by 
a spark discharge is governed by 
two factors, capacity (the measure 
for the storage capacity of the con- 
denser) and inductance (the length 
of conductor in the wave-generating 
circuit i. the circuit includes not only 
the condenser and spark gap, but 
a variable form of conductor or in- 
ductance, as well. The latter is al- 
ways in the form of a flat spiral, or 
a helix. The adjustment of the 
capacity and inductance in the wave- 
generating circuit is known as tun- 
ing, just as a musical instrument is 
adjusted to emit a uote of a desired 
pitch. P.y inserting a telegraph key 
in the primary circuit of the trans- 
former, or induction coil, it becomes 
possible to generate waves at will; 
and by the proper manipulation of 
the telegraph key, an operator can 
emit different trains of waves to 
correspond with the dots and dashes 
of any telegraphic code. 

There are other methods of gen- 
erating electromagnetic waves aside 
from a condenser charged by a high 
tension current furnished by trans- 
former, or spark coil. Among them 
may be mentioned the high fre- 
quency alternator, capable of 
generating current of a frequency 
of over 50,000 cycles by purely 
mechanical means. Several gen- 
erators of high frequency current 
have been built, and within the past 
few years considerable progress* has 

been made along this line, despite 
the seemingly unsurmountable me- 
chanical obstacles encountered at 
the beginning. A purely mechanical 
means of creating high frequency 
current suitable for the electromag- 
netic w»v*«s employed in radio tel- 
egraphy and telephony is obviously 
the most desirable, which accounts 
for the persistent efforts of inven- 
tors along these lines. 

Another method of generating high 
frequency currents is found in the 
employmehl of sonic form of low- 



tension arc. across the terminals of 
which are shunted a condenser and 
a variable inductance. With such an 
arrangement high frequency current 
is generated, the arc acting as the 
gap across which discharges the cou- 
denser. Whereas in the case of the 
usual spark transmitters the con- 
denser discharges or electromagnetic 
waves take place in the form of sep- 
arate trains, each train or group 
comprising a number of sparks, each 
succeeding one less powerful than 
the one before, in the arc generator 
the waves are continuous and of the 
same, uniform strength. Thus the 
spark transmitters have come to be 
known as damped wave transmit- 
ters because of their damped waves, 
while the arc transmitters are known 
as undamped wave transmitters. The 
damping of the waves lends itself 
to an analogy in the form of a sim- 
ple pendulum: In the undamped 
transmitter, the pendulum would be 
kept swinging an equal distance 
each swing, because the power would 
be imparted so to accomplish this 
regularity: while in the damped 
transmitter, the power would be im- 
parted at one swing and not again 
for several swings, resulting in the 
pendulum swinging over a lesser arc 
each succeeding swing until the 
power were again imparted to the 
pendulum. 

The electromagnetic waves, either 
of the damped or undamped variety, 
chopped up in short and long trains 
to represent the desired characters 
of any telegraphic code, have now 
been propagated through ether. The 
problem is not only to intercept them 
hut also to detect their presence. 

The first step in receiving electro- 
magnetic waves is the erection of a 
suitable system of elevated, insu- 
lated wires, known as the aerial or 
antenna, which serves to intercept 
the electromagnetic waves, and to 
lead tlie currents induced in the 
wires down through the receiving 
instruments to the ground. 

The heart of any receiving set for 
wireless telegraphy is that member 



',90 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



which detects the presence of high 
frequency currents flowing down 
through the aerial and receiving ap- 
paratus. It is known as the de- 
tector. In the pioneer days of the 
art, a glass tube containing two 
electrode plugs between which was 
placed a small quantity of metallic 
tilings, served the purposes of detec- 
tor. The action of the filings co- 
herer, as this detector is known, is 
simple: the high frequency current 
passing through the mass of loose 
filings possesses the property of 
causing these to cohere together so 
as to make a better contact between 
the two metal plugs. The lowering 
of the electrical resistance of the 
filings is sufficient to permit the cur- 
rent of a local battery to flow across 
the bridge thus formed and operate 
a relay, which in turn operates a 
.Morse register that prints the sig- 
nals in the form of dots and dashes 
on a paper ribbon. Some suitable 
form of tapper is used to shake the 
filings apart after the high frequency 
currents have ceased to flow through 
them. The tapper, known as the 
decoherer, is usually operated by 
the relay. 

The filings coherer, while possess- 
ing the important advantage of al- 
lowing a Morse register to be used 
in conjunction with it. lias long 
since ceased to be employed in com- 
mercial wireless work, although it 
remains the favorite form of demon- 
stration apparatus for the class- 
room. It has given way to infinitely 
more sensitive detectors which are 
used in conjunction with telephone 
receivers worn on the bead of the 
wireless operator. With the advent 
ot" more sensitive detectors the range 
of wireless transmitters has jumped 
from the tens of miles to the hun- 
dreds and even thousands of miles. 

So numerous and varied are the 
wireless detectors of to-day that even 
a superficial description of each type 
is precluded by space limitations. 
Suffice ii to state that among the 
most popular types of detectors are 
the crystal rectifier, utilizing cer- 



tain minerals and crystal formations 
such as iron pyrites, /.incite, bornite, 
galena, silicon, carborundum; the 
electrolytic detector, which, while 
exceedingly sensitive, has given way 
to the first type because of the great- 
er convenience of the crystal detec- 
tors ; the magnetic detector, which 
would be a truly ideal type were it 
not for the fact that its sensitive- 
ness is of a rather low order; and 
the audion. which is the most suc- 
cessful detector and the one in most 
general use to-day. 

Aside from the detector, a wire- 
less receiving set comprises a tele- 
phone receiver or receivers, and ad- 
justable condensers and coils for 
changing the capacity and induc- 
tance of the receiving circuit to tune 
it to any length of wave desired. 
If a transmitter is emitting waves 
of a length of 400 meters, for ex- 
ample, a receiving set must be tuned 
to the neighborhood of 400 meters 
in order to receive the waves. And 
while it is tuned ro receive those 
waves, other waves of other wave- 
lengths will not be heard in the re- 
ceivers of the operator. Thus it is 
possible for several transmitting sets 
to be operating in one locality at the 
same time, while the same number of 
receiving sets are receiving, each 
from the desired transmitter, with- 
out interference from other trans- 
mitters. Tuned or syntonic wireless 
has reached a high degree of develop- 
ment to-day. although much remains 
to be accomplished. 

After having developed their de- 
tectors to the highest possible de- 
gree of sensitiveness, wireless men 
were confronted with the problem of 
increasing still farther the range of 
receiving apparatus. Solution was 
found in the introduction of ampli- 
fiers, or magnifiers of the weak cur- 
rents in the detector circuit. Some 
form of magnifiers are in reality an 
ordinary telephone circuit, in that 
the receiver, connected to the de- 
tector, is capped over a microphone 
transmitter, which in turn is elec- 
trically connected to a powerful bat- 



392 



OUR (MINTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 



tery and another telephone receiver. 
Thus the faint sounds of the tirst 
telephone receiver are spoken into 
the microphone, which in turn im- 
presses them <>n :i circuit contain- 
ing a loud-speaking receiver, or, ;it 
least, a receiver that produces loud 
sounds in the ears of the operator. 
Other forms of amplifiers utilize a 
modified form of the audion detec- 
tor. In the one-step amplifiers of 
this type, an amplification or mag- 
nification of from 6 to 10 times is 
attained; in the two-step amplifier 
from 60 to KM); and in the three-step 
from ('.no to 1,000, according to Dr. 
DeForest, the inventor of the audion 
amplifier. Thus it will be appreci- 
ated that the sensitiveness of the 
detector is materially improved by 
the use of an amplifier: and it is 
the combination of highly sensitive 
detectors and amplifiers more than 
anything else that accounts for the 
remarkable long-distance communi- 
cation of present-day wireless. 

TELEFHONV WITHOUT WIRES 

Wireless telephony differs from 
wireless telegraphy only in details: 
for in general principles involved 
they are identical. If the wave 
trains of a spark transmitter were 
sufficiently close together to be above 
the range of audibility when received 
in the telephone receivers of the 
operator at the receiving station, if 
would he hut a matter of a few 
slight changes, such as replacing the 
telegraph key with a microphone, to 
convert the average wireless tele- 
graph transmitter into a radio tele- 
phone set. 

As it is. the requirements of suc- 
cessful radio telephony begin with 
a generator of undamped waves of 
very high frequency, so that the 
wave trains when received are above 
the range of audibility. 

I'M il recently some form of elec- 
tric arc was. and still is. employed 
for generating the high frequency 
current for a radio telephone trans- 
mitter. Although on occasions fair 
success attends the employment of 



arc generators, a radio telephone sys- 
tem based on the use of such gen- 
erators cannot he the ideal system 
of the future. An electric arc is 
necessarily unsteady: its electrodes 
usually burn away at a high rate, 
resulting in sputtering and frequent 
readjustment to bring the electrodes 
closer together to make up for the 
consumption of electrode material. 
A constant variation in the consump- 
tion of current results in fluctuations 
in the high frequency current, which 
is fatal to clear transmission. Yet. 
despite the shortcomings of the "lec- 
tric arc as a generator of high fre- 
quency currents, much progress has 
been made with it by numerous in- 
vestigators. 

A Danish investigator, Poulsen, 
has done much toward applying 
and improving the arc generator for 
wireless telephone purposes. More 
recently. Colin and .Teance of France 
have done considerable work on an 
arc telephone, on occasions succeed- 
ing in communicating over a range 
of several hundred miles. In Amer- 
ica. Dubillier, Collins. DeForest and 
other investigators have in the past 
devoted considerable attention to the 
arc generator with a fair degree of 
success. 

Outside of the microphone, which 
must he able to handle large vol- 
umes of current without injury, in 
a wireless telephone set the arc gen- 
erator is the center of interest: and 
likewise it is true that the generator 
is the point of divergence between the 

various systems. The .lanke system, 
for instance. Is a variation of the 
Poulsen arc. in that the arc is placed 
in liquid alcohol to insure greater 
steadiness. To impress the voice on 
the high frequency current, a special 
water-cooled multiple microphone is 
used. The TYK system, on the 
other hand, is not an American sys- 
tem like the former, hut a Japanese 
system developed by Torikato. Its 
Chief value lies in its utmost sim- 
plicity. The system consists of a 
500-volt arc between points of burnt 
magnetite and brass, shunted by a 



394 



OtJR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



circuit with a rather Large capacity 
and a small inductance. A heavy-cur- 
rent microphone is placed in scries 
with the aerial. Although it is sup- 
posed that the TYK system is re, ll.\ 
an arc system, the inventor is of 
the opinion that the result produced 
is a quenched spark of spark fre- 
quency beyond the limit of audibil- 
ity. By a "quenched spark" is meant 
;i discharge that does not oscillate 
to any appreciable extent: in other 
words, the discharge rapidly dies 
out or it is highly damped. 

Various quenched spark systems 
have also been tried, notably that of 
Ditcham, hut as a general thing 
systems based on the use of quenched 
spark generators do not possess 
good speech quality. The speech 
quality of the TYK system is re- 
ported to be poor, which confirms, 
to some extent, the helief that its 
generator is a form of quenched 
spark gap. 



High frequency alternator sys- 
tems have been used as far hack as 
L906 by Fessenden, hut as in the 
case of their application to wire- 
less telegraphy, even to-day they are 
considered largely in the lighl of ex- 
periments because of their prohibi- 
tive cost, their low frequency and 
consequently long wave length, and 
the difficulty of speed regulation. 

The reaction vacuum tube sys- 
tems are the last word in radio tele- 
phony, and judging from the results 
obtained thus far with them there 
can he hut little doubl that they 
possess the qualities of the ideal 
apparatus of the future. Marconi. 
DeForest, and others have, of late. 
investigated the possibilities of the 
reaction vacuum tube in connection 
with radio telephony. DeForest has 
developed a tuhc which is a modi- 
fication of his audion amplifier. 
Known as the oscillion bulb or 
tube, this generator, together with 




WIRELESS TELEPHONE APPARATUS USED WITH SUCCESS BY COLIN AND JEANCE OF 
FRANCE IN TRANSMITTING THE SPOKEN WORD OVER SEVERAL HUNDRED MILES 



WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 



395 



a potentiometer for close regulation, 
filament rheostat, impedance coils, 
loading inductance, telephone trans- 
former coil, microphone transmitter, 
fixed condenser and minor accessor- 
ies, a current supply for the filament 
and another of 150 to 300 volts for 
the production of the high frequency 
currents, forms a complete radio tel- 
ephone for short distance transmis- 
sion. For long distance work a num- 
ber of oscillions are employed, to- 
gether with a higher voltage — as 
high as 1,500 volts for a set with a 
range of 150 to 200 miles. 

Wireless telephony owes much to 
the work of the engineers of the 
American Telephone & Telegraph 
Company who, in the latter part of 
1915, succeeded in telephoning by 
wireless from Washington to Paris, 
and from Washington to Hawaii, the 
latter a distance of 4,900 miles. It 
is understood that a form of reaction 
vacuum tube was employed in large 
numbers in generating the high fre- 
quency currents required. 

At the present moment it seems 
that wireless telephony, long a lab- 
oratory experiment, is at last a com- 
mercially practicable means of com- 
munication. Even so, however, the 
great expense of installations for 
long distance work may cause its 
universal use to be postponed for 
years to come, although it is safe 
to prophesy the widespread employ- 
ment of short-distance wireless tele- 
phone sets for ship-to-shore com- 
munication in the immediate future. 

HOW THE WORLD USES WIRELESS 
TELEGRAPHY 

The later-day pioneers in wireless 
telegraphy, even in their wildest 
flights of fancy, never realized to 
what extent their work would play 
a part in the commercial world and 
in military and naval affairs. True, 
they prophesied the transmission of 
energy by means of electromagnetic 
waves on a vast scale, and even to- 
day there does not appear to be 
much promise of success along these 
lines. But the fact remains that 



communication without wires has 
been applied to a wide range of 
uses other than those originally 
planned. 

Ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore com- 
munication was the original aim of 
wireless men — radio telegraphy was 
to be a maritime invention. To-day 
the greatest employment of wireless 
remains on the water rather than on 
land: and always will its greatest 
field be on shipboard. There is hard- 
ly an ocean-going vessel carrying 
passengers that is not equipped with 
wireless, for laws have been enacted 
obliging such ships to carry radio 
apparatus because of the security it 
affords the traveler on water. So 
numerous and powerful are the land 
stations operating in conjunction with 
the ships that it is very seldom in- 
deed when a ship is out of touch with 
land. Ocean travelers receive the 
news of the world every day, which 
is flashed out by powerful stations 
in America and Europe. 

Serious work has been done in es- 
tablishing radio telegraph and tele- 
phone communication between mov- 
ing trains, notably that of the Lack- 
awanna Railroad. Although on cer- 
tain occasions a range of between 
fifty and one hundred miles has been 
covered between a moving train and 
fixed station, the results on the 
whole have not been satisfactory. 
Perhaps it is that the tests have been 
premature, and that a suitable sys- 
tem of communication, somewhat 
different from existing ones, must be 
developed for this particular pur- 
pose. Employing an aerial eighteen 
inches above the roof of a steel car, 
which is obviously grounded through 
the rails, it becomes evident that it 
is almost impossible to secure any 
distance with a wireless apparatus 
installed and operated under these 
conditions. 

The European War has given 
especial impetus to wireless, partic- 
ularly as applied to aircraft. In de- 
signing radio apparatus for airships 
and aeroplanes due consideration 
must be given to the extremely lim- 



396 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



ited space available on such craft, 
and the limited weight thai can be 
carried. In the case of aeroplanes 

the guy wires and other metallic 
parts of the machine arc generally 
used as the ground (the capacity 

ground), while the aerial is in the 
form of a trailing wire that is paid 
nut from a reel after the machine 
has reached the proper height Most 
aeroplane sets have a range of from 
live to thirty-five miles, and because 
of the intense noise and vibration 
of the engines it is a very difficult 
matter to receive messages on hoard ; 
in fact, military operations make 
due allowance for this condition and 
depend upon the aeroplane wireless 
operator to devote his attention al- 
most exclusively t<> sending. 

On board airships of the Zeppelin 
or the flexible types it is possible to 
employ more powerful apparatus, 
hence a greater range can be cov- 
ered. A typical airship installation 
consists of a transformer, quenched 
spark gap, capacity and induc- 
tance, aerial wire lowered down 
from a winch, ammeter, rapid-change 
switch for different wave-lengths, 
and an alternating current generator 
driven off one of the engines of the 
airship. Such a set. weighing about 
fifty-five pounds without the alter- 
nator, has a range between <".() and 
120 miles. The aerial wire is over 
600 feet long when fully paid out. 

Armies in the field employ porta- 
ble wireless sets for insuring com- 
munication between scattered com- 
mands. Some sets for use in rugged 

country are arranged t<> be carried 

on mule-back, and are known as 
pack sets. But the most common 
wireless sets are those mounted on 
two wagons, one for the generating 
equipment and the other for the 
wireless apparatus proper. The 
aerial of these sets is arranged in 
the form of an umbrella, spreading 
out in all directions from a common 
pole. The latter is usually of alum- 
inum or an alloy of that metal, made 
up of a number of sections which 

can be readily coupled together, 



Within live minutes a mast of this 
kind can be erected, together with 
the aerial and the counterpoise or 
capacity ground. Still another form 
of portable military set is the auto- 
mobile truck set. which is carried 
as one unit on a powerful motor 
truck, and has a range of well over 
one hundred miles under favorable 
conditions. 

The European War has served to 
demonstrate the value of long-dis- 
tance wireless stations for maintain- 
ing communication between widely 
separated countries. Germany has 
set a mark in the art by maintain- 
ing telegraphic communication with 
neutral countries after finding 
herself surrounded by enemies on all 
sides and isolated from the outside 
world. Through the wireless station 
at Nauen, near Berlin, the German 

authorities have been able to give 
each day to the neutral world the 
news of the war from the Teuton 
point of view, without danger of the 
news being censored or altered in 
any way by enemy powers. Much of 
the telegraphic traffic between Ger- 
many and the United States during 
the war has been handled through 
the Nauen and Eilvese stations in 
Germany, and the Tuckerton and 
Sayville stations in the United 
States 

The Allied powers too. although 
not isolated from the outside world. 
have made good use of wireless tel- 
egraphy in keeping in touch with 
each other and in maintaining coin 
munications between their scattered 
armies throughout the globe. It is 
understood thai the Allies in the 
West and Kussia have kept in touch 
by wireless telegraphy, the Eiffel 

tower having been used in the West, 
and a powerful station at Petrograd, 

for the purpose. Wireless has also 
been employed to an unprecedented 
degree in keeping in touch with war- 
craft of all kinds, even to the sub- 
marine boats fitted with folding 
masts that can be hastily erected to 
support an aerial when the craft 
are on the surface. 



WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 



397 



Upon the completion of the Euro- 
pean War a great chain of wireless 
stations encircling the globe will 
be put into operation. It is not 
unlikely that these stations may soon 
prove a formidable competitor to the 
cables, although it is doubtful if they 
can ever be more than a supplement 
to the older form of inter-continental 
communication. Many of the world- 
encircling wireless stations repre- 
sent the very latest phase of the art, 
with ranges of thousands of miles. 
and arranged to receive and transmit 
messages simultaneously and with- 
out interference. 

Among other uses of wireless is 
the collection and distribution of 



weather information to seamen and 
others, which service is of great, 
value to all mankind. Wireless has 
also been applied with success to 
the problems of higher surveying, 
particularly by the French in the 
Sahara and on the Congo in Africa, 
and by Capt. Edwards on the boun- 
dary between Brazil and Bolivia. A 
careful comparison of time between 
distant points has also been rendered 
possible by wireless, which, because 
of the high velocity at which the 
electromagnetic waves travel, can be 
considered as being practically an 
instantaneous means of communica- 
tion for such distances as are en- 
countered on this earth. 




RECENT WIRELESS TELEPHONE APPARATUS DEVELOPED BY DR. LEE DE FOREST, 
EMPLOYING THE 0SCILLI0N OR OSCILLATING-VALVE FORM OF GENERATOR 




MOVING PICTUKE ACTORS IN SELF-CONTAINED DIVING SUITS, TAKING PART IN 
AN UNDERWATER PHOTOPLAY SCENE 



CHAPTER IV. 
MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING 

By AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA 



PERHAPS it is because pictures 
are the ultimate universal lan- 
guage that a world-wide fascina- 
tion attaches to motion pictures and 
their production. Or it may be due 
to the romance of picture making — 
the story in back of the screen story, 
which so often excels the tale of the 
film in point of human interest. 
But whatever may be the reason, 
the fact stands that no modern in- 
dustry commands as great interest 
among the multitudes as motion pic- 



tures, not only in the finished prod- 
uct but in the manufacturing 

processes. 

PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE THOUSANDS 

From a purely mechanical point 
of view, motion pictures are nothing 
more than a number of photographs 
of any one object or group of ob- 
jects taken at frequent intervals on 
a strip of film. The exposures are 
made at the rate of sixteen per 
second; and each picture — a photo- 




ARTISANS OF THE FILMS, THEIR STOCKROOM AND THEIR WORKSHOP 

(1) Carpenters, painters and electricians at work in the erection of a Vitagraph set. 

i2l Where the furniture employed in Lasky motion picture productions is 

stored. i3) The woodworking shop of the Lasky western studio 



Copyright by Muim & Co., Inc. 



Km 



OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



graph as perfect as the best of lenses 
and the highest photographic skill 
<;in produce — measures i>ut one Inch 
in width by three-quarters inch in 
height. Perforations are provided 
along either edge of the film, with 
which the mechanism of the camera 
engages fur the purpose of intermit- 
tently drawing the celluloid strip 
through the rays of light coming in 
through the lens, the object being 
to move the film a trifle over three- 
quarters of an inch each time an 
exposure has been made, so as to 
bring a fresh section of film in the 
path of the light rays. 

The film that is exposed in the 
camera is generally a negative. It 
is developed in much the same man- 
ner as an amateur film, although 
its great length calls for the em- 
ployment of a rack or a drum on 
which to wind it in order to facili- 
tate handling. The negative devel- 
oped and dried, it is passed through 
a printing machine together with 
fresh unexposed positive stock so as 
to make as many positive prints as 
may be required. It is the positive 
print of any motion picture produc- 
tion that is passed through the pro- 
jecting machines in theaters and 
viewed on the screen by the millions. 

But let us look in back of the 
screen: let us glance into the activi- 
ties of those who make the him pro- 
ductions possible, but who always 
remain unknown to the audience. 
while the actors who perform no 
greater part in the work become 
famous. 

A STTBMABTNE THAT NEVEB SAW 
TIIE SEA 

The audience is tense with excite- 
ment ;is the hero in the film play 
struggles frantically with the con- 
trol apparatus of a submarine that 
is fast sinking to the ocean bottom, 
because of the constantly rising 
water in its hold. And as he strug- 
gles at his post the water pours in 
on him through an ugly gash made 
in the conning tower of the crafi 
by an enemy destroyer. Perhaps it 
is the climax in a gripping drama, 



then again, it may be the big scene 
or "punch" in a hilarious comedy. 
But, however that may be. the real 
ism of the scene has the desired 
effect on the audience. What dan- 
gers these motion picture folk incur 
in their daily work! is the general 
comment of the unsuspecting public. 

Several months ago the scene in 
question was acted, not. as might 
be supposed, in the interior of a 
submarine, but in a quiet corner of 
a motion picture studio. The "•sub- 
marine" was an elaborate structure 
of wood, metal, and plenty of paint; 
life-sized to be sure, but only of a 
sufficient length or depth to repre- 
sent the particular compartment 
portrayed in the picture story. 

For weeks the artisans of the stu- 
dio workshops had worked in build- 
ing this pseudo submarine: and be- 
fore the camera crank was turned 
the technical director had gone over 
every detail of its construction to 
make sure that it emulated success- 
fully the interior of a modern sub- 
marine. Then the studio hands 
built a tank around the scenery. 
The "set." as the scenery for a 
studio scene is called, was now 
ready for the director. 

The director, being unable to 
carry out his programme of photo- 
graphing certain outdoor or "loca- 
tion" scenes on a certain day because 
of rain or poor light, decided to stay 
at the studio ami photograph the in- 
terior scenes called for in the 
scenario or working plan of his pic- 
ture. After rehearsing the action 

of this particular scene several 
times, the lamps Hashed up and the 
camera man took his place by the 
side of his camera. At the com- 
mand of the director one of the 
Stage hands climbed up on the deck 

of the "submarine," pulling a heavy 
hose after him. which he placed in 
the opening of the conning tower. 
The water was turned on. anil it 
flowed through the hose and passed 
down upon the back of the actor 
playing the part of tlie hero-sailor 
struggling with the control mechan- 
ism of a balky underwater craft. 



MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING 



401 



The water, bounded on all sides by 
the improvised tank of wood and 
rubberized canvas, slowly rose in 
the "submarine" interior. The cam- 
era, which all the while was record- 
ing the action, was naturally so 
focused as to take in only the de- 
sired portion of the setting — the 
sides of the tank did not show in 
the film. The scene was a success. 
Typical of the striving of all 
American producers for realism is 
the foregoing instance. A half 
dozen years ago the audience of the 
average picture theater was not as 
critical as the audience of to-day. 
Formerly a director depended solely 
upon a good story and fair acting 
to make a film production a suc- 
cess ; whereas to-day the director 
strives to reinforce these two essen- 



have even the most insignificant 
details accurate and confidence- 
inspiring. 

JACKS — AND MASTERS OF ALL TRADES 

No motion picture studio would 
be complete without its carpenter 
shop and staff of expert workmen. 
There are so many things that must 
be built especially for the pictures 
that a complete equipment of wood- 
working and metalworking machines 
and a skilled gathering of artisans 
are an absolute necessity. 

It would be impossible to describe 
with any pretense to thoroughness 
the range of work turned out by the 
studio workshops. It is only by 
offering a few examples of what 
they do regularly that a general idea 
of the scope of their toil can be 



1 


J 

it. 


/ v ' - ... 

IS;' 


1 
I 






Xtifeki 


1 -- : --' 



BACKGROUNDS MADE TO ORDER TO FIT THE FILM STORIES 
(1) A set representing the living room of a country home. Note how the stairway at 
the left terminates in a wooden platform, beyond the range of the camera, in this Than- 
houser set. (2) A set representing an office. The players at the left do not appear in the 
Gaumont film being produced, for they are out of the range of the camera. 



tials with the utmost realism of 
scenery. It is imperative, claim the 
producers, that the pictures be re- 
plete with realism ; the audience 
must not be permitted to recall the 
fact that after all the scenes in 
many instances are but improvised 
backgrounds and the necessary 
pieces of furniture taken from the 
stock room or property room of the 
studio. In brief, the audience must 
be made to forget the mechanical 
end of picture production ; and to 
this end every effort is made to 



gained. One day they may be build- 
ing a safe of light wood or com- 
pressed paper — accurately made 
even to the bolt mechanism — which 
may bring forth roars of laughter 
from an audience months hence when 
it is dropped on the head of one of 
the comedians in a film play. They 
may be called upon to build an 
aeroplane, closely following the 
lines of a genuine machine that is 
to be used in the scenes of actual 
flying. The workmen may perhaps 
put in one or two weeks' work in 



402 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



building the aeroplane, exercising 
much ingenuity in its construction 
As Likelj as nol the tires of the 
landing gear may be made from 
short lengths of rubber hose or can- 
vas tube, filled with sawdust. And 
the same degree of ingenuity may be 
repeated a dozen times or more in 
the construction of the machine: all 
this work to appear for a few sec- 
onds on the screen, and probably 
doomed to be blown to pieces or 
burned to ashes. The men may turn 
to the construction of a mirth-pro- 
voking hose-cart or fire-wagon for 
the tire department of some imag- 
inary rural community. Again, his- 
torical or period plays may keep the 
artisans busy building a replica of 
the first steamboat, or making an 
old stage-coach, or a Roman gladia- 
tor's weapons and shield, or even 
an ancient catapult. All these things 
are in the day's work. 

In a recent war play. "The Fall 
of a Nation," {'our huge siege guns 
figured conspicuously in the battle 
scenes between defenders and in- 
vaders. Each gun was a faithful 
reproduction of the famous Krupp 
28-millimeter siege howitzers, mount- 
ed on caterpillar wheels. When 
seen on the screen, even a military 
expert would hi' apt to mistake the 
guns for their counterparts busily 
engaged on European battlefields. As 
a matter of fact, however, these 
"guns" were made of wood, and at 
the time represented perhaps one of 
the most intricate pieces of work 
yet undertaken by the film artisans. 
They were a faithful copy of the 
actual pieces, even down to the re- 
coil cylinders which actually func- 
tioned following the explosion of a 
charge of black powder in the metal- 
lined barrel. The guns were said to 

have COSl the producers of the film 
some $10,000 each, ami although the 

amount appears rather high at first. 

nevertheless it serves to accentuate 
the great amount of preliminary re- 
search work and designing that had 

to he carried out before the actual 
construction began. And here again 

the producers insisted that if ilh 



L'uns were to he used at ail. they 
must he accurate enough to pass 
before the most critical audience 
without arousing undue suspicions. 
The producer of a submarine 
story, which, in its main essentials, 
closely follows the theme of Jules 
Verne's "Twenty Thousand Leagues 
Under the Sea." recently endeavored 
to secure the loan of a United States 
submarine from the Navy Depart- 
ment, without success, so the story 
ltocs. Whereupon he set out to build 
a submarine of sheet iron, with a 
length of over 100 feet, a beam of 
1." feet, and a draft of -I feet. The 
shell had to he of sufficient strength 
to withstand a submergence of fort\ 
feet deep. By means of tanks the 
submarine could take on water in 
order to settle down beneath the 
waves, while compressed air tanks 
permitted of blowing out the water 
ballast when the craft was to he 
brought up to the surface again. 
The submarine was tit ted with a 
torpedo tube capable of discharging 
a regulation torpedo. In all. six 
months' time was expended in build- 
ing this submarine, which closely 
followed the lines of the "Nautilus," 
the famous craft of Captain Nemo; 
indeed, the Navy submarines were 
hardly suitable to represent the fic- 
titious craft, which may have been 
one reason why the producer de 

cided to construct a special sub- 
mersible, lilted with a lock in its 
bottom through which divers wear 
bag self-contained suits could pas- 
out to the ocean floor. 

In a certain production. -'The 
World and the Woman," there was 
to he a garden scene during a thun- 
der storm. One of the features of 
the scene was a driving rain, while 
another was ;i Hush of lightning. 
The scenario called for these things: 
there was nothing for the studio 
artisans to do hut to produce the 
desired effect. 

An aeroplane propellei was 

mounted on a substantial support. 
and to it was applied the power of 
an electric motor through belting. 
An artificial garden set was soon 



404 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



arranged and housed in a suitable 
shelter to make it dark — the photo- 
graphing took place in the yard of 
the studio, in the middle of a beau- 
tiful day. Above the set was ar- 
ranged a trough, perforated with 
many holes to allow water to drop 
below on the scenery. When every- 
thing was ready, the electric motor 
was started, causing the aeroplane 
propeller to blow up a veritable hur- 
ricane through the set. Stage hands 
with watering cans began to pour 
water into the trough, which fell 
in the form of rain only to be driven 
at an angle across the setting, simu- 
lating a powerful gale. And at the 
propitious moment another stage 
hand set off a flashlight, giving the 
desired flash-of -lightning effect on 
the film. 

All of which bespeaks well of the 
skill of the artisans of the screen. 

Most of their work is done in w 1 

and canvas, although occasionally 
they resort to metal, as witness the 
submarine already mentioned. Papier 
macho, plaster of Paris, compressed 
fiber and clay are also used in pro- 
fusion, especially in the making of 
statues, ornate panels, and other 
work of a similar nature, forming 
pari of elaborate sets. 

The equipment of most motion 
picture studios is usually such as 



would do justice to a thriving wood- 
working shop and machine shop 
combined. A typical comedy-pro- 
ducing studio in southern California, 
for instance, has over $2,000 worth 
of woodworking equipment in its 
carpenter shop, while the stock of 
lumber constantly on hand and 
oilier items are said to bring the 
total up to $4,000. The concern em- 
ploys regularly over seventy-five 
carpenters. 

BUILDING INTERIORS TO FIT THE STORY 

The interior settings of a film 
play require the closest attention on 
the part of the producers. For here 
again the constant demand for ac- 
curacy and realism is paramount. 
The smallest details must be 
watched. If the director calls for a 
tenement house scene, the stage car- 
penters must build him a dilapi- 
dated hall and stairs, and small. 
squalid rooms. The scene must ap- 
pear much the worse from wear and 
old age — the steps must look worn; 
the walls must be marred, with here 
and there a hole in the plaster; and 
there must be dirt a-plenty. Again. 
if the director calls for the home of 
a rich man. it is necessary that he 
state what kind of rich man the 
film author had in mind. Is he a 
wealthy man from a family of long 




BRAINS AND SKILL AT WORK IN THE MOTION PICTURE STUDIO 
At the l«'f i : The technical director of the Vitagraph studio supervising the arrangement 
<>f the furnishings in an elaborate set. At the rij.'ht: film artisans at \vurk, making the 
various objects required in Vitagraph pictures. 



406 



OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



standing, or is he a nouveau richet 
If he belong to the former class. 
the furnishings arc to be of a quiet, 
harmonious design, with the paint- 
ings and other ornamentation typi- 
fying good taste: while if he belong 
to the latter, the furnishings must 
lie of a garish sort. For it is in 
this manner that the motion picture 
producer endeavors to amplify the 
type of man whose home is repre- 
sented. Ami motion picture tradi- 
tions have it that a man with newly- 
acquired wealth must have garish 
tastes, and that a tenement house 
must always he old. dirty, and much 
the worse from excessive wear. In 
other words, exaggeration is prac- 
ticed in order to leave little to the 
imagination of the audience. 

Obviously, it would not do to 
leave the selection of furnishings 

and their proper arrangement to 

stage hands and carpenters, and ac- 
cordingly the demand for accuracy 

and realism has brought into exist- 
ence ;t new type of executive in the 

til in industry the technical director, 
or art director as he is sometimes 
called. To him falls the task of 
reading through the synopsis or 
scenario of a film story, followed by 
the supervision of the erection of 
sets. lie is responsible for the ar- 
rangement of the furnishings, even 
down to the smallest details, as well 

as for the costuming of the players. 
However, he is not responsible for 

the action part of a scene; that task 
remains, as ever, the work of the 
director. 

The technical director must he a 
veritable human encyclopaedia — a 
man of remarkably broad knowledge 
and experience. He must be well 
read ; and what he does not know 
he must lie able to "dig up" at short 
notice. Here is how his knowledge 
and experience are applied : 

If a scene is laid in a certain 
COUntrj and the I iine is of a different 
century, he must know what gar- 
ments the players are to wear, the 
accouterments of the soldiers, the 
et Iquel te of t he period and country. 



the furnishings of the interiors, the 
head-dress of the women, and a 
thousand and one other details. 

Perhaps actual incidents are most 
convincing in Illustrating how the 
directors strive for accuracy, and 
how the absence of technical direc- 
tion may be fatal to an otherwise 
perfect production. The story is told 
of how Irvin Cobb, the noted Ameri- 
can writer, was visiting a prominent 
I. os Angeles studio while a director 
was rehearsing a scene of a war 
play in which a regiment of Ger- 
man soldiers were marching through 
a Belgian village. To add what he 
considered a touch of com fort 
and naturalness to the scene, the 
director had the men leave their 
coats unbuttoned. Mr. Cobb, then 
only recently returned from the war 
/.one. was horrified at this gross mis- 
representation of facts. lie did QOl 
hesitate to tell the director that at 
■no time do the Hermans have their 
coats unbuttoned while actually on 
the march or on duty. The director 
was grateful for the tip, for he 
realized the humiliation that might 
have been his if the otherwise per 
feet scene were held up to ridicule 

by the better-informed of the mil- 
lions who would ultimately view the 
picture. At the same time the au- 
thor also commented on the wearing 
of the Iron Cross decoration, which 
the director had insisted the men 
should wear conspicuously, whereas 
it is actually tucked away with only 
its ribbon showing. Can there he 
any doubt of the necessity of a tech- 
nical director".' 

To return to interior settings: 
These represent one of the big items 
of expense in the production of a 
film. One reason is that the average 
set can he used in one production 
only, after which it must he dis 
mantled. In the earlier days the 
audience might not have commented 
on seeing the same pieces of furni- 
ture used several times. Bui today 
the audience is more observing and 
will soon detect any attempt to use 
the same lamp, settee, or other fur- 






OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



nishings repeatedly. Conspicuous 
repetition has got to be avoided by 
the producers. And as in the in- 
stance of the garments worn by the 
players, the furniture must be in 
keeping with the last word in in- 
terior furnishings. So every studio 
maintains a large room or several 
rooms in which an almost endless 
variety of furnishings is stored. 

The walls of an interior set are 
generally built of compressed paper 
or lifdit hoard, hacked up with 
framework and props, to facilitate 
the work of erection and destruc- 
tion. Tremendous quantities of the 
necessary materials are employed in 
the course of a year, as witness 
some 50,000 feet or more of com- 
pressed paper board used by a lead- 
ing comedy producer, together with 
over 500,000 feet of lumber. The 
same concern spends over $1,800 for 
some 15,000 n.lls of wall paper each 
year, with which to cover the walls 
of its sets. 

The cost of even the most modest 
set runs up into the hundreds of 
dollars, for it must lie remembered 
that practically every set must he 
built and decorated to order, and 
tilled with the necessary furniture, 
which may not he used for a long 
time to come. Elaborate sets run 
up into the thousands of dollars. 
A good restaurant or cabaret scene 
may cost from .Sl'.imki to $5,000, de- 
pending upon its elaborateness and 
size. A setting calling for intricate 
electric lighting effects sometimes 
exceed-, the $5,000 mark, for in- 
stance, the witches' scene in the re- 
cent production of "Macbeth," star- 
ring Sir Ilcrhert Beerbohm Tree, 
which is said to have cost over 
$10,000 because of the elaborate ap- 
paratus for producing the weird lire 
effects. 

IX THE LAND OK TWO-DIMENSIONED 

81 i:i i i i res 
The film artisan finds his Litest 
field of endeavor in the outdoor sets, 
for under the open skies his under- 
takings are not hindered by space 
limitations and can therefore as- 



sume the tnosl gigantic proportions. 
Here again, the striving for realism 
is the first consideration; here the 
technical director must exercise his 
knowledge of architectural design 
covering i-vi-vy period in history and 
every part of the world. 

Perhaps the greatest set that has 
ever been constructed up until the 
time of writing was one represent- 
ing the ancient city of Babylon, em- 
ployed in the gigantic production 
'•Intolerance." On the front of this 
huge setting— the side that faced 
the camera— there rose high walls 
painted to simulate stone. 100 feet 
in height and adorned with reliefs 
of strange winged creatures and ele- 
phants. The towers of the set stood 
135 feet high, and the various struc- 
tures covered a ten-acre tract of 
land in Hollywood. Cal., just outside 
of Los Angeles. For more than six 
months the carpenters, masons, con- 
crete workers and painters were 
busied with the set. and the cost of 

the work is reported to have I n 

in excess of $50,000. 

nut slightly less pretentious was 
the set erected at an approximate 
(, " s t of $35, ». representing the pal- 
ace, house of parliament, prison, 
royal court, and adjacent buildings 
in a mythical country featured in 
the production ••Civilization." The 
first spadeful of earth in prepara- 
tion for the erection of the set was 
turned in .May. 1915. The completed 
set was ready for use in November 
of the same year. Into its construc- 
tion went thirty carloads. ,,r ap- 
proximately 600,000 feet, of lumber. 
Class valued at a total of $4,000 was 
necessary for the several hundred 
windows, while tons upon tons of 
cement and plaster were used as the 
other principal materials. For the 
steps of the largest building alone 
ten tons of cement was used. The 
sidewalks, with their curbings, meas- 
ured some 1,200 feet, and twenty 
men were employed for three months 
laying them out and arranging the 
parkings between them. Trees. 
shrubbery and lamps were among 



MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING 



409 



the ornaments placed within the 
boundaries of the set. Covering an 
area of over six and one half acres, 
the set has stood atop one of the 
hills in southern California, endur- 
ing the elements successfully as 
though it were intended as a perma- 
nent structure. 

It is principally in portraying for- 
eign scenes that the film artisans 
are called upon to build elaborate 
sets. Years ago, before the industry 
had reached its present high stand- 
ard, companies traveled abroad in 
order to produce plays at the actual 
locations called for by the scenario. 
To-day, in marked contrast, the pro- 
ducers find it easier to bring the 
foreign or distant spots to the stu- 
dio, literally speaking. Accuracy 
enables them to convince the au- 
dience that the scenes have been 
laid in the country called for by the 
story. All parts of the world have 
been brought to the foothills of Cali- 
fornia, the shores of Florida, and 
the edge of the Palisades of New 




FIRST MOVING PICTURE STUDIO IN THE 
U. S., BUILT IN 1905 

This structure was mounted on pivots so 
that it could constantly be turned to keep 
the sunlight streaming in through its crude 
skylight. 



Jersey, where the producers have 
better laboratory facilities, under- 
stand the light conditions, can secure 
experienced players — and savp time. 
Typical instances of foreign sets 
have been the barracks of Delhi, 
India, and a street in a village of a 



mythical country, recently erected 
and used by a Western producer. 
The former consisted of seven indi- 
vidual structures and entailed an 
expenditure of $3,00(1; the latter 
represented a street lined with 
houses of solid construction. The 
houses were made of plaster-covered 
timbers, while the stone walls and 
trees were handled with great care 
to obtain correctness of detail. The 
entire set required about six weeks 
to build and involved an outlay of 
perhaps $5,000. 

There is practically no end to the 
elaborate outdoor sets erected by 
motion picture producers. In the 
production of "Ramona" it was said 
that over 1,800 sets were especially 
built for the play, and that the pic- 
turesque Spanish monastery for one 
of the sets cost some $10,000. 

A commendable piece of work was 
the set representing the temple of 
an Aztec monarch in the sixteenth 
century, which was used in the pro- 
duction "The Captive Cod." Its 
framework was built of timbers, but 
the body was of plaster plaques. 
About 7.000 of these plaques were 
required ; and the total cost of the 
set is said to have been $3,000. 

A set representing a border town 
on the line separating Mexico from 
the United States, for use in a typi- 
cal Western drama, was recently 
constructed at a cost of $1,500. It 
consisted of fifteen buildings, each 
entirely of frame construction. While 
the cost of the village was not great, 
at the time it was regarded by film 
men as one of the most realistic sets 
ever built for the screen. 

Thousands of other sets might be 
described, for they come and go 
without end. P.ut enough instances 
have been cited to prove that the 
production of motion pictures is a 
costly enterprise if realism is to be 
secured. Also, there is to be found 
no more skilled and ingenious arti- 
san than the artisan of the screen, 
whose work, generally unappre- 
ciated, plays so conspicuous a part 
< in the remarkable productions of 
our day. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE REALM OF THE AIR 

By C. F. TALMAX 



THE gaseous envelope of the 
earth which we call the 
atmosphere is interesting not 
only as the environment of life, in 
all its forms, but also as the seat 
of various remarkable physical 
phenomena. Considered especially 
with reference to their biological, 
and above all their human, relations, 
the activities of the atmosphere 
are known collectively as weather; 
but the study of the atmos- 
phere, the science we call Mete- 
orology, is broader than the 
study of weather. Hence, if weather 
is important, and everybody knows 
that it is immensely so, in terms of 
health, comfort and dollars, meteor- 
ology is still more important. This 
science ought to be, but is not yet, 
represented by professorships in 
every university in the land. 

EXTENT AND COMPOSITION OF THE 
ATMOSr-HERE 

The lower part of the atmosphere 
is the densest because it is com- 
pressed by the weight of the air 
above it. Thus it happens that, al- 
though the total depth of the at- 
mosphere is probably at least 300 
miles, one-half of its mass., i.e., one- 
half of the quantity of matter in it, 
lies below an altitude of about three 
and one-half miles above sea-level, 
while about seven-eighths lies below 
the ten-mile level. Above about five 
miles the atmosphere is too rare (or 
rather the oxygen in it is too rare) 
to support life. The highest ice- 
clouds seldom occur higher than 
ten miles. Storms hardly ever reach 



this height. In short, the phenomena 
of life and the phenomena of weath- 
er are confined to a layer of air so 
shallow, in proportion to the dimen- 
sions of our globe, that on the sur- 
face of an orange it would be rep- 
resented by a sheet of paper thin- 
ner than the average book-paper. 

Dry air is a mixture (not a chemi- 
cal compound) of several gases, viz., 
about 78 per cent nitrogen, 21 per 
cent oxygen, 1 per cent argon, and 
0.03 per cent carbon dioxide, by vol- 
ume, besides minute quantities of 
hydrogen, neon, krypton, xenon, 
helium and possibly other sub- 
stances. At levels habitable by man 
the air always contains invisible 
water vapor (from a small trace to 
about 5 per cent), and usually small 
and variable amounts of ozone, am- 
monia, nitric acid, and other gases, 
which, on account of their irregular 
occurrence, are not classed among 
the normal constituents of the atmos- 
phere. Lastly, the lower air always 
contains solid impurities, in endless 
variety, generically known as dust. 

THE UPPER AIR 

Such is the composition of the 
air for a few miles above the earth, 
but the proportions of its constitu- 
ents do not remain the same at 
higher levels, since the lighter gases 
extend farther upward than the 
heavier. Probably there is no water 
vapor above about 12 miles ; no oxy- 
gen above about 60 miles, and no 
nitrogen above about 70 miles. From 
a level of about 50 miles upward the 
atmosphere, instead of being "air," 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



412 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



is mostly hydrogen — the lightest 
known gas. Moreover, at the 50- 
mile level the atmosphere is less 
than l/T.l.oiio as dense as at sea- 
level; i. e.. it is more than seventy- 
five times as attenuated as the best 
"vacuum" obtainable with an ordi- 
nary mechanical air pump. At 300 
miles above the earth it is computed 
to be about one-two-millionth as 
dense as at sea-level. ( >zone, which 
occurs transiently and in small 
amounts in the lower atmosphere, is 
believed to be permanently present 
and abundant at high levels, where 
it is formed from oxygen, probably 
under the influence of ultra-violet 



The past twenty years have wit- 
nessed a remarkable development of 
upper-air research, or aerology. Up 

to a height of about four miles the 
atmosphere has been extensively ex- 
plored by means of self -registering 
meteorological instruments (mete- 
orographs) attached to kites — not of 
the schoolboy pattern, but box or 
cellular kites, the "string" of which 
Consists of several miles of steel 
wire, wound around the drum of a 
power-driven winch. Captive bal- 
loons have also been utilized to some 
extent. For attaining great alti- 
tudes, however, free balloons must 
be used. The so-called sounding- 




SOUNDING THE UPPER AIR 
Left: Launching a pair of Bounding balloons, with self-registering meteorological instru- 
ments attached. Dpper right: Balloon meteorograph and the protective cage in which it is 
senl aloft. Lower right: Weather Bureau party making upper air observations. 



lighl from the sun and of auroral 
discharges. The existence in the at- 
mosphere of a gas unknown to chem 
ists and lighter than hydrogen has 
been maintained in some quarters 
(especially by Dr. Alfred Wegener). 

and it has been named "geocoroni- 
um," or "zodiacon." I f present al all, 
it is presumably the chief constituent 
of the atmosphere in t he upper levels. 



balloon, which carries a meteoro- 
graph, bursts far above the earth. 
and the attached instruments are 
carried gently down by a parachute, 
or an auxiliary balloon. Sounding- 
balloons rise to various heights up 
to '-!i> miles. Small balloons sent up 
without a meteorograph attached. 
merely for the sake of observing the 
drift of the air at various levels, are 



THE REALM OF THE AIR 



413 



called pilot-balloons. An altitude of 
more than twenty-four miles has 
thus been attained. 

Since the year 1902 it has been 
known that the atmosphere is div- 
ided into at least two layers, or 
shells, having quite different char- 
acteristics. If from some place in 
middle latitudes we could travel in 
a balloon as far upward as we 
pleased, carrying a thermometer 
with us, we should find the air rap- 
idly growing colder, at a more or 
less uniform rate, as we ascended 
until we reached an altitude of about 
seven miles. Then the fall in tem- 
perature would abruptly cease, and 
might even be succeeded by a slight- 
ly rising temperature for a certain 
distance upward. This would indi- 
cate that we had passed out of the 
troposphere, as the lower stratum of 
the atmosphere is now called, and 
entered the stratosphere, or isother- 
mal layer, in which there are no 
very decided or regular changes of 
temperature with altitude. The 
boundary between the two layers 
lies much higher in equatorial re- 
gions, and the temperatures at the 
summit of the troposphere in such 
regions are lower than anywhere 




KITE AND BALLOON HOUSE AT AN 
AEROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY 

else in the atmosphere. A sounding- 
balloon over Batavia, Java, has re- 
corded 133 degrees below zero, Fahr., 
at an altitude of about ten miles. 
Besides differing from the tropo- 



sphere in its lack of regular temper- 
ature contrasts in a vertical direc- 
tion, the stratosphere has an inde- 
pendent circulation ; concerning 
which, however, not much is yet pos- 
itively known. 

THE PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE 

The atmosphere presses down up- 
on the earth with a weight which, 
at sea-level, amounts, on an average, 
to 14.7 pounds to the square inch. 
This pressure is, at any point, ex- 
erted equally in all directions ; it 
acts, for example, on the whole sur- 
face of the human body, and this 
means that a man of average size 
lives under a burden of some seven- 
teen tons of air. He is not incom- 
moded because the pressure from 
without is balanced by that of the 
air inside his body. The pressure 
of the air decreases upward at the 
same rate as its density ; at an alti- 
tude of three and one-half miles it 
is about half as great as at sea-level. 
Thus the atmospheric pressure on 
mountains and plateaus is considera- 
bly less than in lowlands. At no 
place is the pressure invariable, nor 
is there a constant relation between 
pressure and altitude; but, knowing 
approximately the average atmos- 
pheric pressure over the earth's sur- 
face, and knowing also the area of 
the latter, we can compute in round 
numbers the total weight of the at- 
mosphere—about 5,000,000.000,000,- 
000 (5 quadrillion, according to 
American notation ; 5,000 billion, ac- 
cording to British notation) tons. 
This is about 1/1.200.000 of the en- 
tire weight of the terrestrial globe. 

The pressure of the air is meas- 
ured by means of an instrument 
called the barometer, and hence is 
often referred to as "barometric" 
pressure. In this instrument the 
weight of the air is balanced against 
a column of mercury, and the height 
of the latter, generally expressed in 
inches or millimeters, is taken as 
the measure of the former. Hence, 
when we say that the average baro- 
metric pressure at sea-level is 29.92 
"inches," we are really expressing 



414 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



in a roundabout way the weight of 
the air at that level. 

HOW THE ATMOSPHERE IS HEATED 

Our life and our weather are both 
maintained by a tiny fraction — less 
than half a millionth — of the heat 
given off by the great luminary 
around which the earth revolves in 
space. At any given moment half 
the surface of the globe basks in 
the sunshine while the other half is 
in shadow. Besides rotating on its 




\ o<vA 

THE MARCH OF THE SEASONS 
8, tlic sun ; V, north pole of tlio earth ; 
/?. winter in X. hemisphere and summer 
in s. hemisphere : I), summer in X. 
hemisphere, winter in s. hemisphere; .1, 
C, equinoxes. 

axis once a day. the earth revolves 
around the sun once a year, and its 
axis, which always remains parallel 
to itself, is inclined to the plane of 
its orbit. These facts (illustrated in 
the accompanying diagram i explain 
the alternation of day and night, 
the march of the seasons, and the 
opposition of the latter in the two 
hemispheres. The northern half of 
the globe receives more than its 
share of solar heat at the season 
when the southern half is receiving 
less, and vice versa; hence the north- 
ern summer coincides with the 
Southern winter, and the northern 
winter with the southern summer. 
The amount of heat received at a 
particular place, at a given time, de- 
pends chiefly upon the angle at 
which the sun's rays reach the 
ground, and this is continually 
changing. The interposition of 
clouds, variations in surface top- 
ography, different heal absorbing 
properties of water and land, and a 



number of other complications ac- 
centuate still further the contrasts 
in temperature between different 
parts of the earth's surface, and 
these contrasts give rise to the 
iri)ids. 

Some of the heat that comes to us 
from the sun is absorbed in its pas- 
sage through the atmosphere, but 
the greater part of it penetrates to 
the earth, where it is absorbed, and 
then given out to the lower strata 
of air. Thus our atmosphere is 
heated chiefly from below. The air 
that is heated at the earth's surface 
expands in all directions, but es- 
pecially upward, where it encounters 
the least resistance. Moreover, air 
that has risen and spread out later- 
ally increases the pressure on the 
air over which it has flowed, and 
this lower air pushes in toward the 

over-heated area. The inflowing ( 1- 

er air helps to drive the heated 
air upward. In other words, the 
heated air does not rise merely on 
account of its expansion, but because 
it is pushed up by the air around it. 
Philosophically speaking, our atmos- 
phere is kept in motion by solar 
energy, just as a steam-engine is 
kept in motion by the energy of fuel. 

Since the atmosphere is relatively 
Very shallow, the distances the ait- 
rises and falls under the effects of 
temperature are extremely small 
compared with the distances it is 
carried over the surface of the earth. 
It is chiefly the horizontal movement 
of the air that we think of as 
"wind." but the up-and-down move- 
ment is an essential part of the pro- 
cess and has several important ef- 
fects. 
THE GENERAL WIND oi mi; GLOBE 

In the equatorial regions the sur- 
face air is heated more than else- 
where, and rises and overflows, at 
high levels, toward the poles: while 
the relatively cold air of high lati- 
tudes Hows equatorward, near the 

earth's surface, to replace it. A 

simple circulation between the equa- 
tor and the poles could, however, 
only occur if the earth did not ro- 



THE REALM OF THE AIR 



415 



tate on its axis. The "deflective 
force" of the earth's rotation causes 
a particle of air moving in any di- 
rection over the earth's surface to 
deviate — to the right in the northern 
hemisphere and to the left in the 
southern (a phenomenon that is not 
limited to air movements, but ap- 
plies in general to bodies moving 
freely over the earth). At about 
latitude 30 degrees the winds com- 
ing from the equator have been so 
much deflected that they move al- 
most eastwardly. The result is a 
great whirl around the pole, occupy- 
ing most of the temperate zone in 
each hemisphere, with prevailing 
winds from the western quadrant at 
all levels. The centrifugal force of 
this whirl causes the air to bank up 
at about latitude SO degrees, pro- 
ducing a belt of high pressure in 
that region, which is sometimes 
known as the horse latitudes. 

Between this belt and the equator 
there is a regular circulation of air 
e (i u a to r w a r d below ( the trade 
winds) and poleward above (the 
anti-trades) ; and both these systems 
of winds are given an oblique direc- 
tion by the earth's rotation. Near 
the equator, between the two trade- 
wind systems, is a region of calms 
and variable winds, with abundant 
clouds and rain, known as the dol- 
drums. Trades and doldrums shift 
alternately north and south in the 
course of the year, following the 
sun, and give to regions which come 
under their control, successive dry 
and rainy seasons. Within the polar 
circles the low temperatures increase 
the density of the air, which flows 
away from the poles near the earth's 
surface; an effect that appears to 
be strengthened by the drainage of 
air down the glacier slopes of the 
two polar continents (Greenland and 
Antarctica). 

The accompanying table shows 
in a general way the arrangement of 
the principal wind-belts of the earth. 
This represents prevailing condi- 
tions, which are, however, subject 
to many interruptions. In middle 



latitudes, for example, while the pre- 
vailing drift of the air is eastwardly, 
the actual wind at any place and 
time is usually determined by the 
positions of cyclones and anticy- 
clones (of which we shall say more 



NORTH POLE 



Arctic calms and outflow- 
ing winds, deflected west- 
wardly (with poleward 
winds overhead). 



Westerly to southwesterly 
winds of middle latitudes. 



Horse latitudes ("calms of 
Cancer"). 



Northeast trade winds 
(with southwest anti- 
trades overhead I . 



Doldrums. or equatorial 
calms (with east winds 
overhead ) . 



Southeast trade winds 
(with northwest anti 
trades overhead). 



Horse latitudes ("calms of 
Capricorn" i . 



Westerly to northwesterly 
winds of middle lati- 
tudes (including the 
"brave west winds" of 
southern oceans). 



Antarctic calms and out- 
flowing winds, deflected 
westwardly (with pole- 
ward winds overhead i. 



SOUTH POLE 



presently). Any of these general 
wind-systems may be disturbed by 
the seasonal winds known as mon- 
soons, which blow outward from a 
continent to the ocean in winter and 
in the reverse direction in summer. 



416 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



[nterruptions on a smaller scale 
arise from a day-and-night alterna- 
tion of winds to and from bodies 
of water (land and sea breezes; land 
and lake breezes), and a similar 
daily reversal of the wind direction 
in mountainous regions (mountain 
and valley breezes). 

CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES 

Cyclones and anticyclones are 
areas of low and high barometric 

pressure, respectively, exhibiting cer- 
tain typical conditions of wind and 
weather. In this country the term 
"cyclone" is persistently misapplied 



by the hands of a clock) around the 
center: not in circles, hut more or 
less spirally inward. In the south- 
ern hemisphere their direction is re- 
versed. The anticyclone lias a cir- 
culation opposite to that of the cy- 
clone (clockwise in the northern 
hemisphere and counterclockwise in 
the southern). 

There are certain regions of the 
globe in which cyclones or anticy- 
clones of large extent (known as 
"centers of action") tend to persist 
through a season or the whole year. 
though with fluctuations in size and 
activity. Most cyclones and anti- 




l)V the newspapers and the public 
to a very small intensely violent 
stor f the "spout" variety, prop- 
erly known as the tornado. The 
true Cyclone covers an area thou- 
sands of times as greal as that cov- 
ered by a tornado, and its winds 
may be either stormy or gentle. In 
the northern hemisphere the winds 
of a cyclone blow "counterclockwise" 
(opposite to the direction followed 



cyclones, however, travel over the 
earth, and those of the temperate 
/.one ithe "lows" and "highs" of the 
weather map) move in a general 

west to-east direction. In the United 

states their speed averages about 

600 miles a day. i This refers to 
the translation of the whirl as a 
wh ile. and not to the force of its 
winds.) In general, cyclones are at- 
tended by clouds and rain or snow; 



THE REALM OF THE AIR 



417 




A FREAK OF THE TORNADO 

anticyclones by fair weather. The 
temperature commonly rises with the 
approach of a cyclone, and falls in 
its rear. It is the constant passage 
of cyclones and anticyclones over 
the country that gives ns our change- 
able weather. 

On the weather map these areas 
are depicted by drawing lines, called 
isobars, connecting places having the 
same barometric pressure. Wherever 
the isobars are crowded the winds 
the strong; where they are widely 
spaced the winds are gentle. 

The tropical cyclone {hurricane 
of the West Indies, typhoon of the 
China Sea, baguio of the Philippines) 
is a relatively violent whirl, which 
originates in the stagnant air of the 
doldrums, and usually moves in an 
oblique and curved path toward 
higher latitudes, frequently passing 
into the temperate zone, where it 
increases in size and decreases in 
strength. While middle-latitude cy- 
clones occur throughout the year, 
tropical cyclones are almost lim- 
ited to particular seasons (those of 
the West Indies are commonest from 
July to October"), and they are also 
confined to rather small regions of 
the globe. Storms of this type cause 
frightful devastation in the Carib- 
bean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, 
and occasionally in the southeastern 



United States (as at Galveston, Sep- 
tember 8, 1900, when 6,000 lives and 
$30,000,000 in property were destroy- 
ed, chiefly by the great waves gen- 
erated by the storm). 

TORNADOES AND THUNDERSTORMS 

The tornado is a small vortex in 
the atmosphere, occurring generally 
in the southeastern part of a cyclone, 
and rarely experienced, in its full 
development, elsewhere than in the 
United States, east of the Rocky 
Mountains: Its average diameter is 
about 1,000 feet, and it travels along 
a path varying in length from a few 
hundred yards to 200 or 300 miles. 
The whirl as a whole moves at a 
speed averaging 25 miles an hour, 
while the velocity of rotation proba- 
bly sometimes amounts to 500 miles 
an hour — a wind-force far exceeding 
that of any other type of storm. 
Within the narrow track of the 
disturbance buildings are blown to 
bits, trees are uprooted, and human 
beings only find safety underground; 
but close on either side of the track 
little or no damage is done. The 
position of the whirl is marked by 
a funnel-shaped cloud. Waterspouts, 
which occur on the ocean and other 
large bodies of water, are similar in 
character to tornadoes, though gen- 
erally very much less violent. 

Thunderstorms occur chiefly in 
warm climates and during the warm 
season in temperate climates, but 
they are by no means unknown in 
the polar regions. They are char- 
acterized by rapidly rising air cur- 
rents, which may be either incidental 




ONE OF THE FEW AUTHENTIC PHOTO. 
GRAPHS OF A TORNADO 



418 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



to the circulation of a cyclone or 
duo ti> local overheating of the 
ground under strong sunshine. Cy- 
clonic thunderstorms sometimes oc- 
cur along a line several hundred 
miles in length, extending radially 
from the center of a cyclone, and 
sweeping over the country at a fair- 
ly uniform speed. This phenomenon 
is called a lint -squall. 

The electrical features of a thun- 
derstorm are file result and not the 
cause of the atmospheric movements. 
The process by which the clouds be- 
come so strongly electrified as to 
give rise to disruptive discharges be- 
tween cloud and earth, or cloud and 
cloud, is not yet settled beyond con- 
troversy, but has been plausibly as- 
cribed to the breaking up of rain- 
drops in uprushing air currents, ami 
the consequent separation of positive 
from negative electricity. Lightning 
owes its luminosity to the beating of 
the air along the path of the elec- 
trical discharge. The sudden expan- 
sion of the heated ail' produces the 
sound-wave we call thunder. 

A Hash of lightning sometimes con- 
sists of a single virtually instantane- 
ous discharge; hut in other cases 
several discharges occur in rapid 
succession along the same path, giv- 
ing to the lightning a flickering ap- 
pearance. The duration of a mul- 
tiple Hash of this character max 
amount to half a second or more. 
When such a Hash is photographed 
with a camera swinging on a vertical 
axis, the successive Hashes appear 
side by side on the plate. The rare 
form of discharge known as /icarl 
or beaded ii<iiitni>i</ presents the ap- 
pearance of a string of luminous 
beads, still rarer is rocket light- 
ning, which shoots up into the air at 
the apparent speed of a skyrocket. 
Ball lightning, winch takes the form 
of a globe of Qre moving slowly 
through the air near the earth 
(sometimes indoors) has not yet 
been satisfactorily explained. //, at 
lightning Is the reflection on the 
clouds of ordinary lightning too dis- 
tant to he audible. 



Lightning is far more destructive 
iu the rural district- than in cities 
and towns. In this country the aver- 
age annual property loss from this 
cause is about $8,000,000, while 
about 1,500 persons are affected an- 
nually by lightning stroke, one-third 
of this number being killed. The 
efficacy of well-constructed light- 
ning-rods is not doubted by compe- 
tent authorities. Statistics show 
that they reduce the tire hazard 
from lightning by 80 to 90 per cent 
in the case of houses, and by as much 
as 99 per cent in the case of hams. 

OTHER ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA 

St. Elmo's fire (also known under 
a score of other names i is a brush 
discharge from the points of ter- 
restrial objects, and is most common 
on mountains. It is also seen on the 
masts and spars of vessels. Brush 
discharges on a vast scale are said 
to occur along the crest of the Chil- 
ean Andes, whence they are visible 
hundreds of miles out at sea. 

The aujrora (called aurora bore- 
alis in the northern hemisphere and 
aurora australis in the southern) is 
now most commonly attributed t<> 
the passage of cathode rays through 
the atmosphere, under the effects of 
some kind of radiation or emission 
from the sun. It is especially com- 
mon and brilliant at times when sun- 
spots are numerous, and is accom- 
panied by disturbances in the earth's 
magnetism. The aurora has been 
carefully studied in high latitudes 
by means of simultaneous photo- 
graphs from two stations, whereby 
its altitude and distance from the 
place of observation can he determ- 
ined. There appear to he two prin- 
cipal forms: vi/... a tranquil, homo- 
geneous arc. occurring only at great 
altitudes, and shifting beams and 
"draperies," occurring mainly at 
lower levels. There is some evidence 
that a feeble auroral glow commonly 
extends o\cr the whole nocturnal 
sky. in all latitudes (earthlight) . 
Misi ri i xm.oi s WINDS 

A wind blowing from a warm re- 



Till: REALM OF THE AIR 



419 



gion toward a cyclonic center is 
called, in southern Europe, a sirocco, 
and this term is sometimes applied 
to similar winds elsewhere. Such 
winds are commonly associated with 
the heated terms or "hot waves" of 
our American summers. Winds 
blowing in winter from regions of 
high barometric pressure and low 
temperature bring us cold waves and 
sometimes blizzards (the latter term 
implying the presence of driving 
snow in addition to high wind and 
low temperature). The northers of 
Texas come under this head. 

A foehn (pronounced like "fern" 
but without the r) is a wind which 
has been robbed of much of its 
moisture through precipitation (rain- 
fall) on the windward slope of 
mountains, and which is further 
dried and heated in descending the 
leeward slope. (The heating is due 
to the "adiabatic" process, an ex- 
planation of which will be found in 
physical and meteorological text- 
books.) In the western United 
States such a wind is called a 
chinook. Its effects are most pro- 
nounced in winter, when it brings 
about a very sudden rise in temper- 
ature and causes snow to vanish as 
if by magic, whence it has been 
nicknamed the "snow-eater." The 
bora of the Adriatic and the mistral 
of the French Riviera differ from 
the fochn in the fact that they 
blow from a cold mountainous in- 
terior to a warm coastland, and, 
therefore, though heated in their 
descent, produce the impression of 
a cold wind. 

Types of wind, the world over, 
are not numerous; but as the local 
examples of a given type were named 
before their generic identity was 
recognized the number of wind 
names in use amounts to several 
hundred. The khamsin, harmattan, 
simoon, leveche, lestc. h ranter, 
pampero, zonda, buran, purga, 
brick fielder, southerl y burster, 
williwaw, pontias, tirano, ora, etc., 
are a few of these locally named 
winds. 



MOISTURE IN THE AIR 

For a given temperature of the 
air there is a maximum amount of 
moisture that can be present in an 
invisible form (water vapor). When 
the air is charged to the limit it 
is said to be -saturated." Absolute 
humidity is the weight of water va- 
por present, per unit volume, or the 
tension of this vapor; relative hu- 
midity, the ratio of the amount pres- 
ent to the amount necessary for sat- 
uration, expressed in percentage. 
Cooling of saturated air causes con- 
densation, in the form of cloud, fog, 
mist. rain, snow, hail, dew or hoar- 
frost. The temperature at which 
condensation occurs is called the 
dew-point, and this varies with the 
humidity. 




BESSON'S NEPHOMETER FOR MEASUR- 
ING CLOUDINESS 



The highest clouds consist of ice 
needles, and present a feathery ap- 
pearance. Fleecy-looking clouds are 
composed of little droplets of wa- 
ter. According to the International 
Cloud Classification there are ten 



120 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



principal forms of cloud; viz., three 
feathery forms, cirrus, cirro-stratus 
and cirro-cumulus, and seven fleecj 
or homogeneous forms, atto-cumulus, 
alto-stratus, strato-cumulus, nimbus, 
cumulus, cumulo-nimbus and stratus. 
A few subordinate forms are also 
recognized. A common type of cir- 
rus is popularly called "mares' 
tails." cirro-cumulus is known as 
"mackerel sky." cumulus is called 
"wool pack," and cumulo-nimbus 
"thunder-clouds," or "thunder- 
heads." Nimbus is the rain cloud. 
A cloud at the earth's surface con- 
stitutes fog. Haze is a turbid state 
of the atmosphere, sometimes due 
merely to the varying optical prop- 
erties of air of different tempera- 
tures and densities, and sometimes 
to the presence of an unusual 



phenomena (photometeors) . Falling 

raindrops produce, by refract ion and 
reflection, the rainbow, opposite the 
sun. There is usually a bright 
primary i><>ir and a fainter secondary 
bote; and one or both may be fring- 
ed with supernumerary or spurious 
hmis. Lunar rainbows are some- 
times seen. They are. as a rule, 
nearly colorless, owing to feeble il- 
lumination. Water clouds produce 
around the sun or moon, by diffrac- 
tion, a diffuse reddish ring, called 
the corona. From a mountain top 
or a balloon a person sometimes sees 
his shadow cast on a bank of fog 
or cloud. (The shadow seems "u r i- 
gantic," owing to over-estimation of 
its distance. I The head is often sur- 
rounded by a glory of colored light, 
due to diffraction. The whole phe- 




BANDED FORM OF ALTO-CUMULUS 



amount of dust, smoke or line wa- 
ter-drops. Dust-haze, or dry fog, is 
characteristic of dry climates and 
dry seasons: it is also a result of 
fires in forests, moors ami prairies, 
and of volcanic eruptions. Remark- 
able Instances of daytime darkness 
have sometimes been produced bj 
exceptionally dense haze of this 

character. 

Moisture in the atmosphere is ac 
countable for a variety of optical 



nomenon is called the specter of 
the Brocken. 

Halos are due to the refraction or 
reflection (or both) of light by ice 
crystals in the atmosphere. They 
may take the form of rings of deti- 
nite angular Size (the commonest 

has a radius of 22 degrees) sur- 
rounding (he sun or moon: also of 
rings <>r arcs in various other posi- 
tions, and di^ks of lighl ( l»i rhel in 

and paraselenae; in popular Ian- 



THE REALM OF THE AIR 



421 



guage, "sundogs" and "moondogs"). 
Some forms of halo are distinctly 

colored ; others are not. An excel- 
lent descriptive account of such 
phenomena will be found in the 
Monthly Weather Review (published 
by the U. S. Weather Bureau) for 
July, 1014, pages 436-446. 

Not all photometeors are due to 
moisture. Mirage, for example, re- 
sults from the refraction of light 
through adjacent atmospheric strata 
having very different densities. One 
form of mirage is common over hot 
plains and deserts in calm weather, 
presenting the illusive appearance 
of a sheet of water. 



warm season. It consists of ice and 
compact snow, generally in concen- 
tric layers. Little pellets of snow, 
like tiny snowballs, falling chiefly 
in early spring and late autumn, 
but also in winter, have been inap- 
propriately named soft hail (the 
German name G ran pel is preferable). 
The term sleet is applied by the 
Tinted States Weather Bureau to 
small particles of clear ice — frozen 
raindrops. The British apply this 
term to a mixture of rain and snow. 
Moisture condensed from the air on 
cold surfaces at night (just as 
it is condensed on the outside of 
an ice-pitcher) is called dcir. If the 



■In 111) Sll 100 




160180160 140 120 Hif 



TEMPERATURE ZONES (ACCORDING TO SUPAN) 



PRECIPITATION 

Moisture that is condensed out of 
the atmosphere and deposited on the 
earth is called precipitation. The 
commonest liquid form of precipita- 
tion is rain, and the commonest 
frozen form, snoic (each flake of 
which is an aggregation of tiny ice- 
crystals). Hail, properly so called, 
falls almost exclusively in connec- 
tion with thunderstorms, and hence, 
in our latitudes, is limited to the 



deposit occurs in a frozen form it 
is called hoarfrost. 

Fog drifting against terrestrial ob- 
jects in cold weather sometimes 
leaves a rough deposit of ice, called 
rime. The smooth icy deposit clue 
to rain freezing as it falls — often 
very destructive to tree branches, 
telegraph wires, and the like — is now 
officially termed glaze in this coun- 
try, but is popularly misnamed 
"sleet." In England it is known as 



422 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



glazed frost. The occurrence of 
glaze on an extensive scale consti- 
tutes an ice storm. 

In connection with the subje 
precipitation passing mention maj 
be made of the widespread delusions 
that prevail as to the possibility of 
producing or preventing it artificial- 
ly. It is held, on the one hand, that 
cannonading and other explosions 
cause rain. and. on the other, that 
the firing <>f cannon, bombs and rock- 
ets drives away hail. Both beliefs 
are unfounded. The energy involved 
in such explosions is insignificant in 
comparison with the atmospheric 
forces that determine the occurrence 
(.1" precipitation. 

CLIMATE 

The meteorological conditions thai 

are characteristic of a particular re- 
gion constitute its climate. With re- 
spect t<> temperature, climates are 
distinguished not only as hot. cold 
and temperate, bul also as equable 
and the reverse. Marine climates — 
i. e., those of regions exposed t<> 
winds from the ocean — have small 
daily and yearly ranges of tempera- 
ture, while continental climate 
those withdrawn from oceanic in- 
fluences arc subject to greal ex- 
tremes of temperature. The highest 
temperatures are not limited to the 
equatorial regions, nor the lowest 
to the polar regions. Probably no 
other part of the world experiences 
quite such hot weather as prevails 
in the deserts of southern California 
in summer. A shade temperature 
of 134 deg. I'ahr. has been regis- 
tered at Greenland Ranch, in Death 
Valley. Oceanic islands in the tor- 
rid /.one never have temperatures as 
high as those that prevail widely 
over tlie interior of the United 

States during "hot waves." (in the 

other hand, the cold weather experi- 
enced in winter in our northwestern 
and north central States far sur- 
passes anything known in much 
more northerly seaboard regions of 
western Europe. The lowest winter 



temperatures in the world are those 
that occur in north-central Siberia, 
where, at Verkhoyansk, an official 
temperature of 90 degrees below 
zero. Fahr., has been recorded. 

Rainfall, as an element of climate, 
includes all forms of aqueous pre- 
cipitation i the frozen forms being 
expressed in their "water equiva- 
lent"). Measurements of rainfall re- 
fer to the depth of water that would 
lie upon the ground if none of it 
ran off, soaked in or evaporated. 
Annual rainfalls may he classified, 
especially with respect to their ag- 
ricultural significance, as excessive 
when over "•""» inches; copious, 50-75 
inches; moderate, 25-50 inches: light, 
10-25 inches: desert, under lo inches. 
The heaviest rainfall occurs within 
or near the tropics (though greal 
deserts also occur in thi- region). 
Tin- rainiest place in the world for 
which we have meteorological rec- 
ords is Cherrapunji, a hill station in 
India, with an animal rainfall of 
about 426 inches. The heaviest mean 
annual rainfall in the United States 
(not including Alaska ) is about 133 
inches in Tillamook County. Oregon. 
The heaviest snowfall in the United 
States probably occurs in the high 
Sierra Nevada, near the border be- 
tween Nevada ami California. A 
total depth of <;."> feet has been 
known to fall here in the course of 
a winter. 

That "the climate has changed" 
within a generation or so is a stub- 
born popular delusion, which pre- 
vails more or less all over the world. 
and has probably prevailed in every 

age. The belief ill tile "old fashioned 
winter" is an example of this de- 
lusion. More than a century ago 
American philosophers wrote disser- 
tations on tlie changes <<f climate 
that they supposed had occurred 
since early colonial times. Such 
ideas arise chiefly from the fact that 
exceptional weather impresses itself 
more lastingly upon one's memory 
than normal weal' 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



By C. F. TALMAN 



TEXXYSOX, who, of all the 
brethren of his craft, did most 
to poetize the facts of astron- 
omy, speaks of the stars as "cold 
fires, yet with power to burn and 
brand his nothingness into man.*' 
Nonentity has its advantages. A 
sovereign remedy for the trivial 
worries of human life is the con- 
templation of the starlit sky and the 
realization of the infinitesimal im- 
portance of the earth and all things 
earthly in comparison with a bound- 
less universe. The nightly spectacle 
of the stars is, however, commonly 
ignored. Many people look at it all 
their lives without really seeing it. 
The more conspicuous constellations 
ought to be as familiar to every 
human being with two eyes in his 
head as the town hall or his next- 
door neighbor's stable. They are far 
from being so. Most people you 
meet will admit frankly that the 
only constellation they know by 
sight is the Big Dipper — which, as 
it happens, is not a constellation 
at all. 

A knowledge of the heavens is 
more general in primitive and pio- 
neer communities than in centers of 
civilization and culture. The pas- 
toral tribes of Chaldea and Arabia, 
thirty centuries ago, were better ac- 
quainted with the stars than are 
modern Xew Yorkers and Londoners. 
During the South African war the 
English soldiers were astonished at 
the ease with which the colonial 
troops marched at night, using the 



stars to guide them in lieu of a 
compass. 

The relative "nothingness" of the 
earth and its inhabitants is chiefly 
a modern idea, though it was not 
entirely unfamiliar to the specula- 
tive philosophers of antiquity. 
Thanks to the brilliant labors of 
many astronomers — of whom Coper- 
nicus should be mentioned first of 
all — we now know that the world 
on which we live is a planet or 
satellite, revolving humbly around 
an enormously greater body, which 
we call the sun ; and we know that 
the sun, in its turn, is a rather un- 
important member of a vast system 
of suns, or stars. The sun looks 
bigger than the other stars only be- 
cause it is nearer to us. 

How many stars are there? Sur- 
vey the heavens on a cloudless aud 
moonless night, and you will prob- 
ably get the impression that the 
number visible to the naked eye is 
almost infinite. This impression is, 
however, quite erroneous. The 
greatest number of stars which the 
unaided eye can distinguish at any 
one place on the earth and at any 
one time is hardly more than two 
thousand. With an opera-glass 
many thousands more can be seen, 
and this little instrument will be 
found an invaluable adjunct in a 
study of the heavens. A portable 
telescope with an object-glass only 
two inches in diameter discloses, in 
the entire sky. upwards of 700,000 
stars. Great telescopes, such as those 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



424 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




THE ATWOOD SPHERE FOR STUDYING THE STARS 

ns installed at the Academy of Sciences, Chicago. The stars, down to the fifth magni- 
tude, are represented by perforations, of different sizes, in the sheet iron sphere, 
through which lighl shines from the exterior. The sphere can be revolved by au electric 
motor, making the constellations rise and set. 



of the Lick, Yerkes and Mount Wil- 
son Observatories, show at least 
two hundred million. There arc un- 
doubtedly many million more be- 
yond the range of all telescopes on 
account of their prodigious dis- 
tances, and there are probably many 
comparatively near stars that are 
Invisible because they give little or 
no light Indeed these dark stars 
are suspected to be much more 
numerous than the brighi ones. One 
estimate makes them 4,000 times as 
numerous: but this is little better 
than a guess. 

The brightness of the stars, as 
viewed from the earth, is expressed 
on a scale of "magnitudes," so re- 
lated to one another that an average 
star of one magnitude is two and 
one half times as bright as one of the 
next lower magnitude. Of the first, 
or brightest, magnitude there are 
only twenty stars; the brightest of 
all bein»; Sirius. the Dog Star. There 
are sixty-five stars of the second 



magnitude, and two hundred of the 
third. The faintest stars visible to 
the naked eye on a clear, moonless 
night are of the sixth magnitude. 

That the astronomer, without 
leaving our tiny earth, can measure 
the distances of the heavenly bodies 
(or at least of many of them I is 
neither more nor less wonderful 
than that the surveyor, without 
crossing a river, can measure the 
distance of a tree on the opposite 
bank; though the astronomer's task 
requires more delicate instruments 
and more painstaking observations. 
In both cases quite a simple trigono- 
metrical operation is Involved. The 
surveyor gets the bearing of the 
tree from each end of a measured 
base-line: and having thus two 
angles and one side of a triangle, 
the rest is easy. In measuring the 
distance of the moon from the earth, 
the astronomer uses for a base-line 
the known distance between two 
widely separated observatories — say 




9-inch Transit Circle 

26-inch Equatorial, U. S Naval Observatory 

Washington, D C. 



40-mcb Equatorial. Yerkes Observatory 
Xerkes Observatory. Williams. Bay, Wis, 



4L'G 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




EXTERIOR OF THE SPHERE 

;it Greenwich and Cape Town- — an<? 
jrcts the bearing of the moon, or 
rather its apparent position as pro- 
jected on the Car more distant back- 
ground of stars, from each observa- 
tory. The difference in the direction 
of the moon as soon from two 
places on earth (generally reduced 
to the difference in its direction 
from the center and surface of the 
earth respectively) is known as the 
moon's ••parallax." and 'jives ns the 

in i's distance aboul 239,000 miles. 

The sun's parallax is found in a 
somewhal different manner, bui the 
process also involves the use of the 
distance between two places on 
earth as a base-line. The distance 
of the sun from the earth is aboul 

93,000, miles. An express train 

would take more than 250 years to 
perform a journey of tins length, 
and a cannon hall ahout nine years. 
Light, traveling at a speed of L86.000 
miles a second, requires a little more 
than eight minutes to reach us from 
the sun. 

Yet. this distance, enormous as it 
is. is Insignificant compared with 



the distances of even the nearest 
stars. In measuring the parallax of 
a star terrestrial distances are far 
too small to serve as the hase line, 
and accordingly the star is sighted 
from two opposite points in the 
earth's circuit ahout the sun. giving 
a base-line one hundred and eighty- 
six million miles in length. Even so. 
the base-line is barely long enough 
to give a measurable parallax for a 
comparatively small number of 
stars, and the observations involved 
are among the most refined known 
to astronomy. Photographic meth- 
ods are now employed in measuring 
stellar parallaxes. 

The distances of the stars are so 
great that to state them in miles 
would he as awkward as stating the 
distance from New York to Cal- 
cutta in inches. Hence a larger unit 
is commonly employed, known as the 
"light-year." This is the distance 
which light travels in a year, and 
is a little less than six trillion miles 
(according to the American and 
French meaning of the term "tril- 
lion." corresponding to the British 
"billion"). Another unit, more re- 
cently introduced, is the "parsec," 
defined as the distance at which a 
star's parallax is one second of arc. 
or 206,265 times the distance id' the 




MECHANISM OF THE SPHERE 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



427 



earth from the sun. At a distance 
of one hundred parsecs our sun 
would be a star of the tenth magni- 
tude. Our nearest neighbor in stel- 
lar space is a star of the southern 
heavens called Alpha Centauri (the 
brightest star in the constellation 
of the Centaur), its distance being 
4.3 light-years. 

Concerning the actual dimensions 
of the stars we have little positive 
knowledge, but it is certain that 
some are very much larger than 
others, and that our sun is far from 
being one of the giants of the uni- 
verse. To Canopus, a magnificent 
star of the southern skies, has re- 
cently been ascribed by some as- 
tronomers the honor of being the 
biggest of the stars, one estimate 
giving him a volume about two and 
one-half million times as great as 
that of the sun. While such figures 
are highly speculative, they are not 
improbable. 

What are the stars made of? Be- 
fore the invention of the spectro- 
scope there appeared to be little 
prospect that mankind would ever 
find the answer to this question. The 
spectroscope is an instrument which 
analyzes a beam of light, and fur- 
nishes certain information concern- 
ing the source from which it comes. 
It spreads out the light into a rain- 
bow-colored strip, called the spec- 
trum. If the source is a luminous 
gas, the light is broken up into a 
number of bright lines or bands. If 
the light, coming from a luminous 
solid, liquid, or dense gas, has passed 
through a cooler and less luminous 
gas, the spectrum as a whole is 
bright, but is crossed by dark lines 
or bands. In either case the posi- 
tions of these lines and bands reveal 
the chemical composition of the 
gaseous material. 

The interpretation of the lines 
and bands depends upon laboratory 
experiments, and the spectroscope is 
much used by chemists in making 
analyses; but it is also used, in 
Conjunction with the telescope, by 
astronomers, to determine the com- 



ix >sition, not of solid or quasi-solid 
bodies in the heavens, but of the 
gaseous envelopes or atmospheres by 
which these bodies are surrounded. 
Both our sun and the other visible 
stars are so hot that some or all of 
the substances of which they con- 
sist (apart from those which are 
gaseous at low temperatures) are 
vaporized, and form such enveloping 
atmospheres. 

The solar spectrum shows that 
the sun's atmosphere, and hence the 
sun itself, contains an abundance of 
calcium, iron, hydrogen, sodium, 
nickel, and other substances found 
on earth. About forty terrestrial 
elements are positively known to ex- 
ist in the sun, and the presence of 
others is indicated on less certain 
evidence. 

With the aid of photography the 
spectra of more than 200,000 stars 
have been examined. Some show 
the presence of a few, others of 
many elements known on earth. The 
differences between different stellar 
spectra are, apparently, not due to 
any radical differences in the com- 
position of the stars themselves, but 
rather to the fact that their physi- 
cal conditions differ, especially as 
to temperature, and hence they have 
different kinds of atmospheres. In 
short, the stars, the sun and the 
earth are probably all made of the 
same sort of matter. 

The stars are frequently described 
as "fixed," to distinguish them from 
the planets of our solar system, 
which, as we shall presently see, 
change their apparent positions in 
the sky more or less rapidly with 
respect to the stars and to one an- 
other. Actually, however, all the 
stars are in rapid motion through 
space. Our sun. for example, travels 
at a speed of about twelve miles a 
second, Many stars move much 
faster. At the Mount Wilson Ob- 
servatory one has recently been 
found with a velocity of about 358 
miles a second. 

The movements of stars make 
themselves evident in two ways In 



428 



ni'K COUNTRI AND ITS RESOURCES 



the course of years certain stars 
have been observed to change their 
positions a little with respect to 
other stars. This change is known 
as "proper motion." and is always 
very gradual. The greatest proper 
motion known is that of a star dis- 
covered by Barnard, in 1916, which 
in about 180 years changes its place 
in the sky by an amount equal to 
the apparent diameter of the moon. 
Proper motion of a star whose dis- 
tance from us is known by observa- 
tions of parallax shows how fast the 
star is moving across the line of our 
vision, i. e.. the line extending from 
our eyes to the star, but does not 
tell us whether, or how fast, the 
star is approaching or receding from 
us. This so-called radial motion, or 
motion in the line of sight, is de- 
termined by means of the spectro- 
SCOpe. The result of such motion is 
a slight displacement of the spectral 
lines from their normal positions. 
Displacement in one direction shows 
that the star is approaching, and in 
the other that it is receding; while 
the amount of displacement indicates 
the speed of approach or recession. 
In genera] the stars are so far 
apart that they show no definite 
effects of one another's attraction, 
but there are a number of pairs of 
Stars which are obviously revolving 
around common centers of gravity. 
These are called "binaries." Among 
those thus far discovered the periods 
of revolution range all the way 

fr a few hours to 1,500 years. 

Some of these pairs are so close 
that they appear as a single star 

e\ch in the most powerful telescopes, 
hut their double character is re- 
vealed by the spectroscope, and 
hence they are known as "spectro- 
scopic binaries." If the plane in 
which the stars revolve lies more or 
less "edge on" to the earth, each 

star will, of course, successively 
move toward and from us in the 
course of its revolution. This 
causes a shifting of the spectral 

lines similar to that mentioned in 
the last paragraph, if both stars 



are bright enough to show spectra, 
the corresponding lines of these 
spectra will alternately coincide and 
separate. If only one star shows a 
spectrum, its lines will shift alter- 
nately to right and left. When, in 
such cases, the parallax of the stars 
is known, we can compute from well- 
known laws of gravitational motion 
the actual dimensions of the orbits 
in which they revolve and the 
masses of the stars, notwithstanding 
the fact that the best telescopes do 
not show these bodies separately, 
and may not show one of them at 
all — a remarkable example of what 
has been called "the astronomy of 
the invisible." 

Many stars are observed to vary 
in brightness, either regularly or 
otherwise. When there is a regular 
period of variation, the spectroscope 
generally shows the star to be 
double, and the variations of bright- 
ness are apparently determined by 
the different aspects presented bj 
the two components during the peri- 
od of revolution. There is also good 
reason to believe that some variable 
stars are not spherical, but are 
elongated into an elliptical, pear- 
shaped, or hour-glass-shaped form, 
and the rotation of Mich a star mighl 
present to us markedly varying 
amounts of surface. In an interest- 
ing class of variable stars known as 
"eclipsing variables" — of which Al- 
gol, the "demon star." is the most 
famous example — the principal star 
of a pair is periodically "eclipsed" 
by the passage in front of it of a 
less luminous (not necessarily dark) 
satellite, which is itself invisible in 
our telescopes. There are still other 
variables of which the fluctuation in 
brightness is apparently the result 
of periodic outbreaks of activity in 
the star itself, due to causes of 
which we have no knowledge. 

It has occasionally happened that 
a temporary star has made its ap- 
pearance in the firmament, and some 
of these "nova'." as they are called. 
have been of great brilliancy. The 
most famous of them was one which 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



429 



appeared in the year 1572, and which 
is commonly associated with the 
name of Tycho Brahe, the Danish 
nobleman-astronomer, because he 
wrote a description of it, though 
he did not discover it. For some 
days it was brighter than any other 
star in the sky and visible in broad 
daylight. It then gradually faded, 
and at the end of sixteen months 
had become invisible. Another re- 
markable nova appeared in the con- 
stellation of Perseus in 1901. Two 
days before its discovery a photo- 
graph of that portion of the heavens, 
showing stars as faint as the 
eleventh magnitude, did not include 
it. When first observed, it was of 
the third magnitude, and it bright- 
ened in two days to the first, after 
which it rapidly faded. It is still 



hypothesis, supported by spectro- 
scopic evidence, nova? are due to 
the passage of a normally faint or 
dark star through a gaseous region 
in space ; the star being made lu- 
minous by friction, just as a meteor- 
ite becomes luminous in passing 
through the earth's atmosphere. 

Such gaseous regions are known 
to exist, and many of them are self- 
luminous, constituting some of the 
bright cloud-like patches in the 
heavens known as "nebulae," two or 
three of which are faintly visible to 
the naked eye, while probably half 
a million or more are within the 
range of the biggest telescopes, or 
the camera. Not all nebula? are gas- 
eous. Many are merely distant 
clusters of stars, presenting in ordi- 
nary telescopes the same appearance 




Photographed by Ritchey, Yerkes Observatory 
The Great Nebula in Andromeda 



Spiral Nebula 



visible in the telescope as a star of 
the twelfth magnitude. 

Various explanations of these sud- 
den apparitions have been suggested. 
The collision of two dark or faint 
stars in space would doubtless give 
rise to a great burst of luminosity, 
or a vast eruption of glowing mat- 
ter might occur from a star that 
was previously quiescent (but this 
is an explanation that needs to be 
explained). According to a recent 



as gaseous nebulae. Whether a 
nebula is gaseous or not can some- 
times, but not always, be determined 
by the spectroscope. 

Nebulae assume various character- 
istic forms ; some are ring-shaped, 
some elliptical ; some ( the "plan- 
etary" nebulae) disk-shaped, and al- 
most uniformly bright throughout. 
Others are quite irregular in shape; 
of this type is the Great Nebula in 
Orion, the most magnificent object 



130 



<U'K COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



of its kind in the sky. This nebula, 
which can be vaguely seen with the 
linked eye, surrounds one of the 
stars in Orion's sword: 

••;i single misty star 
Which is the second in a line of 

stars 
That seem a sword beneath a belt 

of three" 
(a description, by the way, that is 
probably lost on ninety-nine out of 

every bundred readers of Tennyson's 
••Merlin and Vivien" — especially in 
America, where astronomy has been 
almost completely banished from 
schools and academies). 

Fine details of the nebula? which 
the eye, aided by the best of tele- 
scopes, cannot detect are revealed by 
long-exposure photographs. It thus 
appears that many, and perhaps 
most, of them are made up of spir- 
ally twisted wisps of light, studded 
with points of condensation. The 
camera has also disclosed the pres- 
ence of faint nebulous matter 
spreading over greal areas of the 
sky; in some cases enveloping a 
whole constellation. Just as there 
are dark stars, so there appear to be 
many dark nebula 1 . It is probable 
that such objects, silhouetted against 
a luminous background of dense 
Star fields, account for some of the 
striking black patches in the sky. 

once SUPPOSed to he merely starless 

regions of space. 

The galaxy, or Milky Way. a 
great luminous hand encircling the 
sky, presents a nebulous appearance 
to i he naked eye, but even a small 
telescope shows it to be made up of 
innumerable stars, from the eighth 
magnitude down. Including many 
dense clusters. It contains, however, 
very few Lraseous nebula*. The num- 
ber of stars in a given area of sky 
decreases more or less regularly as 
we move away from the galaxy. 
Thus it seems likely that the stollar 
universe, or. at least, the system of 
Stars to which our sun belongs, has 
a more or less disk like shape (com- 
parable to that of a thin watch), 
with the sun aTld the solar system 



somewhere near the middle of it. 
We should see the densest accumula- 
tion of stars in looking toward the 
edge of the disk, and this would 
correspond with the galaxy. 

We have now. in a truly cosmo- 
politan spirit, taken a general sur- 
vey of the universe before paying 
particular attention to the little nook 
of it in which we live. It is time 
to say a few words about the solar 
system. 

At the center of this system is 
the sun: an intensely hot rotating 
globe, about 866,000 miles in diam- 
eter, probably of very dense gaseous 
matter, completely enclosed and hid- 
den from our view by a shell of 
clouds, which we call the '"photo- 
sphere." While our earth has a cool 
atmosphere, composed of nitrogen, 
oxygen and other substances that 
are gaseous at ordinary tempera- 
tures, and in which water-vapor is 
condensed, by cooling, into the drop- 
lets and ice-crystals of which ter- 
restrial clouds consist, the sun. on 
account of its vastly higher tempera- 
ture, maintains an atmosphere in 
which even the most refractory ele- 
ments are vaporized, and its clouds, 
also liquefied and solidified by cool- 
ing, do not consist of water, but of 
various metals, with carbon and 
other elements. 

The solar atmosphere extends far 
above the photosphere. Immediately 
overlying the latter is a gaseous lay- 
er, consisting partly and perhaps 
chiefly of hydrogen, called the 
••chromosphere." In structure it may 
be compared to a sheet of Same, 
for. though we can see the photo- 
sphere through it. the chromosphere 
itself shines with a brilliant scarlet 
light, which is visible along the 
border or "limb" of the sun at the 
time of a solar eclipse. At such 
times long outward projections from 
the chromosphere are often seen, and 
these are called •'prominences." With 
the aid of the spectroscope it is pos- 
sible to see both the chromosphere 
and the prominences without an 
eclipse, and even to photograph 



432 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



them. Some prominences are Quies- 
cent, banging for days over the same 
spot, while others may be seen to 
shool upward, often at a speed of 
from 100 to 200 miles a second, and 
to altitudes which, in extreme cases, 
amount to from -juo.ihmi to more than 
300,o<to miles. Lastly, the sun has 
an extremely tenuous outer atmos- 
phere, of vast extent, which is seen 
as a broad wispy glow during an 
eclipse, and is known as the "co- 
rona." 

The surface of the photosphere 
usually exhibits a few or many dark 
patches, of various shapes, known 
as "sunspots." These vary in size 
from tiny points, just visible in the 
telescope, to great blotches that can 
be seen, through smoked glass, with 



holes in the photosphere, and - 
formerly believed to be, at least, 
deep depressions in its surface; but 

they are now regarded as the tops 
of vortices, or cyclones, in the solar 
atmosphere. This atmosphere is un- 
doubtedly the seat of an active cir- 
culation, analogous to the wind- 
system of the earth, and one conse- 
quence of the circulation is that the 
cloud layer, or photosphere, rotates 
much more rapidly near the solar 
equator than elsewhere : viz.. once in 
about twenty-five days, as compared 
with thirty days and upwards in 
high solar latitudes. 

The temperature at the surface of 
the sun far exceeds the highest that 
can be attained with the electric 
furnace, the most powerful heating 




SATURN, THE LIGHTEST OF THE PLANETS IN PROPORTION TO ITS SIZE, 

WOULD FLOAT IN WATER (IF THERE WERE AN OCEAN 

BIG ENOUGH TO HOLD IT!) 



the naked eye, and are actually 
Kin. uiiii miles or more in diameter. 
The spuis are transient phenomena, 
lasting from a few days to a few 
months, and changing more or less 
rapidly in shape. As the sun ro- 
tates, carrying the spots with it. the 
latter appear at one limb of the 
solar disk and travel across to the 
opposite limb. The spots look like 



device known to man. Estimates 
range up to 16,000 or 18,000 deg. 
l'ahr. The sun's output of heat has 
been the object of elaborate observa- 
tions with instruments, such as the 
bolometer and the pyrheliometer, de- 
signed for measuring the minute 
fraction of this heat that we receive 
on earth, and it is found to be sub- 
ject to slight fluctuations; yet in 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



433 



^W^tfT^swWss* 



Neptune 
(1 satellite) 



Uranus 

(4 satellites) 



Saturn 

(10 satellites) 



Jupiter 

(9 satellites) 



Asteroids 



Mars 

(2 satellites) 



Earth 

(1 satellite) 



Venus 



Mercury 



ftftjaHaJuaiiEsasfc- 



RELATIVE SIZES OF PLANETS 
(Sun's Diameter on Same Scale Equals 

Length of Cut) 
Corrected to date from Todd's "New As- 
tronomy." Copyright 1897 and 19(1(5. Used 
by permission of American Book Company, 
publishers. 



the long run it remains substantially 
uniform, and probably has so re- 
mained since prehistoric times. How 
is this supply of heat maintained? 
The impact of meteors falling with 
enormous speed into the sun would 
account for part of it, but the much 
slower fall of the outer portions of 
the sun itself — in other words, a 
gradual shrinking of the whole body 
— seems to be the chief explanation. 
It has been computed that a con- 
traction of only six miles per cen- 
tury would keep the sun at its pres- 
ent temperature. Several centuries 
must elapse, however, before this 
slow shrinking, if it exists, can be 
verified with the telescope. 

The student who has familiarized 
himself with the constellations and 
their principal stars with the aid of 
star maps will notice in the noc- 
turnal sky a few star-like objects, 
some of them very brilliant, which 
are not shown on the maps, and 
which move from one constellation 
to another. Their paths all lie with- 
in a comparatively narrow zone of 
the heavens, called the "zodiac." 
These are the planets. Compared 
with the stars and the sun they are 
actually of very small size, though 
some of them outshine any of the 
stars because of their proximity to 
us. The nearest of all the planets 
does not shine in our skies ; it lies 
at our feet. We call it the earth. 
There are eight known planets ; not 
counting their attendant moons, or 
satellites, nor the small bodies 
known as asteroids, or planetoids. 
All the planets, with their moons, 
and also the asteroids, revolve 
around the sun in orbits that, in 
most cases, are nearly circular. 
They all shine with light reflected 
from the sun. 

The names of the planets, the 
order in which their orbits lie from 
the sun, and their relative sizes are 
shown by the accompanying dia- 
gram, the total length of which in- 
dicates the diameter of the sun, on 
the same scale. The satellites, not all 
of which are shown, are not drawn 



434 



<UK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



to scale (those (if Mars would be in- 
visible if their relative size were not 
here much exaggerated). Mercury 
is the nearest planet to the sun. 
Though there has been much specu- 
lation about an "intraniereurial 



name Vulcan — no such body is now 
believed to exist. On the other 
hand, it is extremely probable that 
one or two unknown planets lie be- 
yond the orbit of Neptune. 

Besides revolving around the sun, 



planet" — it has even been given the each planet rotates on its axis. The 




TELESCOPIC VIEW OF THE MOON A DAY AFTER FIRST QUARTER 

The linage is Inverted as compared with a naked eye view. The rough edge in the right 

is the "terminator"— the line along which tin 1 sun is just risiuu-. Here the 

craters cast long shadows and are most favorably observed 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



435 



rotation of the earth causes the, 
to earth-dwellers, apparent daily 
revolution of the sun, moon and 
stars, just as the motion of a train 
in which you are riding causes the 
apparent motion, in the opposite di- 
rection, of objects outside the win- 
dows of your carriage. 

The moons or satellites have even 
more complex motions than the plan- 
ets. They are carried by the latter 
around the sun ; they rotate on their 
axes; and they revolve around the 
planets to which they severally be- 
long. Mercury and Venus have no 
moons; the earth has only one; Mars 
has two, both very small and very 
close to the planet. At this writing 
(1916) Jupiter is known to have 
nine, Saturn ten, Uranus four, and 
Neptune one ; but it is not likely that 
all the satellites of these four planets 
have been discovered. 

Our own moon — the moon— is 
much the nearest of all celestial 
bodies to the earth. Her diameter 
is a little more than one-fourth as 
great as the earth's, and she re- 
volves around our planet in about 
twenty-seven and one-third days. 
The lunar "month," determined by 
the relative positions of the moon 
and sun in our skies, is twenty-nine 
and one-half days. Since the moon 
always keeps the same face toward 
the earth, she turns once on her 
axis while she is revolving once 
an mnd the earth. 

The moon is usually described by 
modern astronomers as a "dead 
planet." She is supposed to have 
had an atmosphere ages ago, but 
to have lost it, and to be devoid of 
moisture and incapable of support- 
ing life. All that is certain, how- 
ever, is that if a lunar atmosphere 
exists it is excessively rare, and 
that most, if not all, forms of life 
known to us would perish if trans- 
planted to our satellite. Some re- 
cent observers, notably Professor 
Pickering, believe they have de- 
tected patches of vegetation and ice, 
frost or mist on the lunar surface. 
The moon is the most interesting 



of all objects in the telescope, be- 
cause of the innumerable mountains 
— chiefly extinct volcanic craters— 
which cover her surface. Many of 
the craters are far larger than any 
similar formations known on earth. 
Several hundred of the craters have 
been named in honor of early as- 
tronomers and philosophers. The 
so-called "seas" on the moon are 
desert plains — perhaps the dry beds 
of former oceans. 

The gravitational pull of the moon, 
combined with that of the sun, pro- 
duces the tides in our oceans. As 
the earth rotates, a wave of water 
travels around the globe, following 
the direction of the moon's apparent 
motion, while another wave, on the 
opposite side of the globe, is due 
to the fact that the earth itself is 
pulled, by the moon's attraction, 
away from the overlying ocean. Thus 
at any one place in the ocean there 
are two tides a day. 

In her revolutions around the 
earth the moon frequently passes 
between us and the sun, in such a 
position as to obscure the whole or 
a part of the sun's disk as seen from 
portions of our planet, producing a 
solar eclipse. As the direction of 
the moon at any time with respect 
to the sun is not the same from all 
parts of our globe, an eclipse that 
is "total" in one region of the earth 
will be "partial" or nil in other 
regions. At any one place "totality" 
is very brief, lasting only three or 
four minutes in an average eclipse. 
There is a very narrow zone along 
which totality occurs progressively, 
as the moon advances in her orbit 
and the earth rotates (these two 
motions are in the same direction, 
otherwise the duration of the eclipse 
would be even less) ; on either side 
is a much broader zone, in which 
a partial eclipse is seen ; while over 
the rest of the earth there is no 
eclipse. 

A lunar eclipse occurs when the 
moon, in the course of her revolution, 
passes through the shadow cast by 
the earth, and is thus temporarily 



136 



ol'K COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES 



deprived of sunlight. If the moon 
is completely immersed in the 
shadow the eclipse is total; if only 
partly immersed, it is partial. A 
lunar eclipse, unlike a solar eclipse, 
is always visible to the entire hemi- 
sphere of the earth turned moon- 
ward at the time. 

.Mercury and Venus are called 
"inferior" planets, because their 
orbits lie within that of the earth. 
As viewed from the earth they seem 
to oscillate from one side of the 
sun to the other: now appearing in 
the western sky after sunset, and 
now in the eastern sky before sun- 
rise. Mercury's apparent position in 
the sky is never very far from that 
of the sun. and hence this planet is 
never above the horizon long enough 
after sunset or before sunrise to be 
conspicuous. Venus moves consider- 
ably farther from the sun. and at 
such times becomes a magnificent 
object, much brighter than any other 
planet or tixcd star. It is probable, 
though not certain, that Mercury and 
Venus always keep the same faces 
tinned toward the sun. just as the 
moon does toward the earth. If so, 
scorching heat must prevail perpetu- 
ally in one hemisphere of each 
planet, while intense cold reigns in 
the oilier. Mercury appears to have 
Little or no atmosphere; but Venus 
Rives unmistakable evidence of pos- 
sessing one, and also clouds. As to 
permanent surface markings on 
these planets astronomers are not in 
agreement. 

The "superior" planets, i. e., the 
planets whose orbits are outside that 
of the earth, sometimes lie in the 
same direction from the earth as the 
sun, when they are said to be in 
"conjunction" with that luminary, 
ami are invisible; sometimes in the 
opposite direction, when they are 
said to be in "opposition," and shine 
through the night, rising about sun- 
sol and setting about sunrise. Posi- 
tions midway between conjunction 
and opposition are known as "quad- 
rature." 

Mars, when at opposition, and 



therefore nearest the earth, is an 
object of great interest on account 
of the many details of its surface 
that can then be seen through pow- 
erful telescopes, under favorable at- 
mospheric conditions. These mark- 
ings show that the planet rotates 
on its axis once in about twenty-four 
and one-half hours ; hence its "day" 
is a little longer than the earth's. 
Near the planet's poles are two white 
patches, the "polar caps," which be- 
have as if made of snow or ice. 
varying in size with the Martian 
seasons. The rest of the surface is 
mottled with grayish green and yel- 
lowish areas, and shows a number 
of dark lines and spots that have 
been variously reported and inter- 
preted by different observers. Among 
these are the so-called "canals," de- 
scribed as radiating and intersecting 
lines of such geometrical regularity 
as to suggest an artificial origin. 
Many double or twin canals have 
also been reported. One hypothesis 
in regard to these lines is that they 
are irrigation channels, fringed with 
vegetation. This implies, of course, 
the present or former existence of 
intelligent beings on Mars. Some 
astronomers, however, consider the 
canals a mere optical illusion, due 
to the tendency of the eye to join 
up by lines any aggregation of small 
or faint markings. 

Beyond the orbit of Mars lie the 
asteroids, or minor 'planets, of which 
several hundred are known, while 
many new ones are discovered ev- 
ery year. The largest of these bod 
ies is barely 500 miles in diameter, 
and most of them are very much 
smaller. 

Next in order conies the giant 
planet Jupiter, one-tenth as great in 
diameter as the sun. around which 
it revolves in a period of nearly 
twelve years. Jupiter turns on its 
axis once in about ten hours; faster 
than any other planet. As in the 
case of the sun. we see little if any 
of its real surface, but only a dense 
layer of clouds in which it is en- 
veloped. These clouds assume belt- 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



437 



like forms, visible even in a small 
telescope. The planet itself is be- 
lieved to be in a fluid or semi-fluid 
condition, and intensely hot, though 
hardly hot enough to be luminous. 
Jupiter is the second brightest of 
the planets, and much brighter than 
any fixed star. 

Saturn, which lies next beyond 
Jupiter, is unique among the planets 
in the possession of a system of flat 
and very thin rings, like circular 
disks of paper perforated in the 
middle. According to the position 
of the planet with respect to the 
earth and the sun the rings present 
very different appearances, and at 
times disappear altogether, at least 
in ordinary telescopes ; viz., when 
they are "edge on" to us, or "edge 
on" to the sun, or, again, when 
they turn toward us the side on 
which the sun is not shining. At 
other times they are broadly ellip- 
tical and conspicuous in a small 
telescope. These strange appen- 
dages were long a puzzle to the as- 
tronomers, but are now known to be 
made up of innumerable little bodies, 
comparable in size to meteors, re- 
volving around the planet. Saturn 
exhibits cloud-belts, like those of 
Jupiter, though less distinct, and its 
structure is probably similar to 
Jupiter's. 

Uranus is barely visible to the 
naked eye. It w T as the first planet 
to be found with the telescope, hav- 
ing been discovered in 17S1 by Sir 
William Herschel, who at first sup- 
posed it to be a comet. All the 
planets with which men were then 
acquainted had been known from an- 
tiquity, and the discovery of a new 
one created a great stir. Much more 
remarkable, however, from a scien- 
tific point of view was the discovery 
of Neptune, in 1S46. The position 
of this planet was computed before 
the planet itself was seen, solely on 
the basis of irregularities in the 
movements of Uranus, wmich were 
evidently due to the disturbing in- 
fluence of another and undiscovered 
member of the solar system. The 



computations were performed inde- 
pendently by Leverrier in France 
and Adams in England, and the 
planet was found by the astronom- 
ers at the Berlin Observatory at 
the place where Leverrier told them 
to look for it. Neptune is invis- 
ible to the naked eye. Its distance 
from the sun is 2,791,000,000 miles, 
and its "year," i. e., its period 
of revolution around the sun, is 
165 of our years. It has there- 
fore not made half a circuit since 
its discovery, in the days of our 
grandfathers. 

Comets, once objects of awe and 
terror, are commonplace to the 
modern astronomer, who, with his 
telescope, finds half a dozen new 
ones every year. About one-fifth of 
these become, at some time in their 
history, bright enough to be seen 
with the naked eye. While many 
comets, especially the fainter ones, 
have no visible "tails," a few have 
displayed more than one of these 
appendages. The tail is always di- 
rected away from the sun, and often 
attains a stupendous size ; some have 
been more than 100,000,000 miles in 
length. Most astonishing is the fact 
that, in spite of their size, comets 
are always excessively light ; mere 
feathers compared with any of the 
planets. This is proved by the fact 
that they do not produce the slight- 
est disturbance in the movements of 
planets or satellites near which they 
pass, though their own movements 
are greatly modified by these ap- 
proaches. Comets are self-luminous, 
but their brightness is doubtless 
increased by reflected sunlight. Many 
of these bodies are permanent mem- 
bers of our system, performing their 
revolutions around the sun at in- 
tervals of a few or many years. 
Others, so far as we know, make 
this circuit only once, and then 
dash away for all time into outer 
space. 

Meteors, or shooting stars, appear 
to be intimately related to comets, 
and may be produced, at least in 
part, by the disintegration of the 



138 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



latter. These bodies only become 

risible to us when they pass through 
our atmosphere and are made 'uin- 
inous by friction. Millions of them 
enter the atmosphere every day. 
Most of these are probably vaporized 
and dissipated, some pass on into 
space, and some reach the earth as 
meteorites. Vast swarms of mete- 



ors appear to be constantly traveling 
in regular orbits around the sun. 

The "zodiacal light," a faint glow 
extending along the zodiac in both 
directions from the sun, and best 
seen in our latitudes in the evenings 
of February and March, is probably 
due to sunlight reflected from a 
great ring of meteors. 




CRATERS ON THE MOON 
Large-scale photograph of a small Bection <.f the lmmr surface 
crater near the middle <>f the picture is BnlUaldna 
formation known us the '•Struiglit Wull." 



The prominent 
Near the left margin is thg 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



439 



THE NORTHERN HEAVENS 



The maps shown on the following pages 
represent the heavens as seen, on the different 
dates given, from stations in and about the 
latitude of New York (40° N) It is not an 
easy matter to recognize the stars by looking 
at the map. A certain amount of study is 
necessary ; for, of course, the different stars of 
a constellation are not linked togetherby lines 
as they are in the map and furthermore their 
magnitude is very much exaggerated. The 
best plan for the novice is to start with a well 
known constellation, such as that of the 
Great Bear. The' "Dipper" which is a part 
of the Great Bear is so conspicuous a group 
in the northern skies that anyone can point 
it out. Knowing the Dipper, the Pole Star 
may readily be discovered by tracing a line 
from through o of the Dipper and about 
five times as far. Around the Pole Star 
(Polaris) which is of the second magnitude, 
the entire northern heavens appear to revolve 
once a day Having found the Pole Star the 
constellation of Cassiopeia may be found by 
extending a line from « of the Dipper through 
the Pole Star and as far again to the other 
side, where a cluster of stars in the form of a 
large ragged W will be found, if we run a 
line diagonally from a of the Dipper through 
y and about eight or nine times as far again, 
we shall come to the first magnitude star 
Spica, in the constellation of the Virgin, 
while a _ line extended from a through £ and 
about eight times as far again will bring us 
in the midst of the constellation of the Lion. 
At the eastern end of this constellation, is 
the second magnitude star Denebola, and 
the distance from this star to Spica is about 
the same as that froni Spica to Arcturus, the 
first magnitude star in the constellation of 
Bootes. Thus we may proceed building up 
our knowledge of various groups and using 
these groups as reference points to find new 
constellations. 

Contrary to custom in geographical maps, 
our gtar maps are drawn with the east on the 
lefthand side and the west on the righthand 



CASSIOPEIA 






" \P0LARIS 






rne'oiPMen/f^ 


0. 




boo res f-^. 


\ 


/the 


{/ i : ' 


\ 


\siCHie 


V / 

\/ARCn//it/S 


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'RfGULUS 


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MRSO i ^r"'" 


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MSP/CA 







THE "DIPPER" AS AN INDEX TO THE 
HEAVENS. 

side, while north is at the top of the page and 
south at the bottom. This is due to the fact 
that the heavens are viewed looking upward, 
while the geographical map is viewed looking 
downward. In locating stars and con- 
stellations, it is best to hold the map over- 
head when the actual points of the compass 
and those marked on the map will bear the 
true relation to each other. 



NIGHT SKY: JANUARY AND FEBRUARY 



If one views the heavens on the hours 
specified under our map of January, he will 
find almost directly overhead a bright star 
with a triangle of lesser stars beside it. The 
bright star is Capella or the Little She Goat 
which is held on the ami of Auriga, the 
Charioteer, whose left hand is represented by 
the triangle of stars, i\, e, £. The constellation 
bears no resemblance whatever to a charioteer 
or a goat. In fact, very few constellations 
bear any resemblance to the objects the 
ancients supposed them to represent. Half- 
way between Capella and the southern horizon 
are the three bright stars forming the belt of 
Orion. They are indicated in the map f, e, fi. 
and they are centered in the square formed 
by the stars, Betelgeux, Bellatrix, Rigel and 
the star noted by the letter k. The little 
triangle of stars at A mark the head of Orion, 
while the line of faint stars at f represents a 
lion skin that Orion is holding forth towards 
the constellation of Taurus, the Bull. The 
principal star of "this constellation is Alde- 
baran, a bright red star, marking the left eye 



of the bull, while his two horns are indicated 
by the stars and f. The star e is at the 
right eye of the bull, and y at his nose. They 
form with Aldebaran a triangle that is easily 
recognizable. A little to the west of this 
group is the interesting star cluster of the 
Pleiades. In this cluster, there are six stars 
easily visible to the naked eye, and many can 
see seven stars, while observers with ex- 
ceptionally good eyesight have been able to' 
see as many as fourteen stars. A small spy- 
glass will reveal large numbers. 

The stars forming the belt of Orion point 
in-the general direction of the first magnitude 
star Sirius in the constellation of Canis Major, 
the Great Dog. Sirius is by far the brightest 
object in the heavens if we exclude the sun, 
moon and planets. It is one of the_ nearest 
suns outside our solar system, yet it is so far 
off that it takes nearly nine years for its light 
to reach us. The diameter of Sirius is about 
twenty times that of the sun and its volume 
is about seven thousand times greater. In 
the constellation of Canis Major there are 



4-H I 



(UK COUNTRY AND ITS KKSiil Ki'KS 




At ii o'clock 
" 10:30 



o'clock: Feb. 6 
■30 '" " 14 



At 9:30 o'clock: January 29 



NIGHT SKY: JANUARY AND FEBRUARY, 



two other first magnitude stars, but Siriua so 
far outshines them that they look no brighter 
than second magnitude stars. If we follow 
the line from Aldebaran eastward beyond £ 
wo come t-> the constellation of Gemini, the 
Twins, marked by the two bright stars, 
Cast<>r and Pollux; while south of this con- 
stellation is the first magnitude star Procvon 
in the constellation of Canis Minor, the Little 
Dog. It w-ill be noticed that most of tin- 
constellations so far referred to lie adjacent to 
the Milky Way. If we follow the Galaxy 
northward, we find just beyond the con- 
stellation of Auriga, the constellation of 
Perseus, whose most interesting star is marked 
P and u known as Algol, the Demon Star or 
the Winking Demon. Every two days, 



twenty hours and forty-nine minutes, t'lis 
star begins to fade until, in the course of three 
or four hours, it loses four-fifths of its light. 
Then it begins to become brighter until 
eventually, after three or four hours more, 
it reaches its normal brilliancy. The star 
marks the head of Medusa, which according 
to the Greek legend Perseus was earr>ing 
when he came across Andromeda chained to 
the rock. Further north along the Milky 
Way we come to Cassiopeia. 

In the northeast is the great dipper forming 
part of I'rsa Major, the Great Bear; far in 
the cast is the constellation of Leo, the Lion, 
in which are the prominent stars Regulus, 
Denebola. The curved lins of stars ending 
with Regulus is known as the Sickle. 



(The Star Maps are all copyrighted uy.Munn & Co., Inc.) 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



441 




U ii o'clock Mar. 
" 10:30 " " 16 

" 10 " 23 



At 9:30 o'clock: March 30 



NIGHT SKY: MARCH AND APRIL. 



Our map for March and April shows most 
of the constellations along the Milky Way 
low in the western sky. The great dipper is 
well up near the zenith with its pointer stars 
P and a indicating the position of the Pole Star, 
Polaris. Oddly enough the ancients repre- 
sented the great bear as having a long tail, 
indicated by the stars e, £, 7;. These are the 
only stars that follow the outline of the beast. 
•The star is at the bear's mouth, while the 
stars k, 1, and m, A, and v, f represent three 
of his feet. The star £ is interesting because it 
has a small companion, called by the Arabs 
"Alcor." A little to the south of the zenith 
u the constellation of Leo, referred to in the 



previous paragraph. Below Leo are two 
small groups known as Corvus, the Crow, and 
Crater, the Cup. They are not very con- 
spicuous; neither is Hydra, the Sea Serpent, 
which stretches its long length across the 
southern sky. Its brightest star is Alphard 
which is of the second magnitude. Above 
the head of the serpent is the inconspicuous 
constellation of Cancer, the Crab. An 
interesting feature of this constellation is a 
faint star cluster, just visible to the naked eye 
and marked on the map Praesepe, the 
"Beehive." In the telescope this is seen 
to be made up of a myriad of small bright 
stars. 



442 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




At 9:30 o'clock: May 30 
THE NIGHT SKY OF MAY AND JUNE. 



The constellation nearest the zenith in 
May and June is that of Bootes, or the 
Herdsman. A bright red star, Arcturus, may 
be found in this constellation. It is known 
as the Wandering Star for the reason that it 
is slowly drifting with respect to the other 
stars in the Heavens. Since the time of 
Christ it has moved in a southwesterly 
direction, fully one degree, or through a 
distance equal to twice the diameter of the 
moon. Its yearly displacement is two 
seconds of arc. South of Bootes is the con- 
stellation of Virgo, whose brightest star is 
Spica. Between Virgo and Ursa Major are 
two faint constellations known as Coma 
Berenices, Berenice's liuir, uud Cuius 
Venatici, thd Hunting Dogs. Close to the 
southern horizon is the constellation of 
Centaurus. the Centaur. Not very much of 



this constellation can be r.een from our 
latitude. Its brightest stars lie below the 
horizon. They include a Centauri, the 
nearest body outside the solar system. This 
star is only 255.00(1 times as far from us as we 
are from the sun. It takes its light 4i years 
to come to us. In the southeast, low down 
near the horizon may be seen the constella- 
tion of Scorpio, the Scorpion. This con- 
stellation is made up of a very easily recog- 
nizable group of stars. It contains the 
brilliant first magnitude star, Antares, at 
each side of which are the lesser stars <r and t. 
A line of stars traces the form of the Scorpion 
as shown to better advantage in the next 
map. The Scorpion embraces in its claws 
the constellation Libra, or the Scales. In 
the north above the Polar Star, we may see 



THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



443 



the body of the Little Bear, Ursa Minor. 
Most of the stars of this constellation are faint 
with the exception of Polaris and two stars 
and v which have been called the guards. 
Between Ursa Minor and the Zenith, the 
constellation Draco, or the Dragon, twine's its 



long form. The stars y, $ and | ifcark the 
head of the dragon. To the eastwara of tho 
constellation Bootes is a partial ring of stars 
known as Corona, or the Crown. This is one 
of the few groups actually outlining the 
object it is supposed to represent. 




At 9:30 o'clock: July 30 

NIGHT SKY: JULY AND AUGUST. 



The Zenith constellation for July and 
August is Lyra, the Lyre, with its bright blue- 
white star, Vega, nearly directly overhead. 
Just west of the Zenith is the constellation 
Haroules whose stari form a ragged-looking H. 
Below this constellation is Ophiuchus who 
nvs in his grasp the constellation Serpens or 
tie Serpent. Low down in the south the 
constellation of Scorpio has dragged its full 
length above the horizon and it is easy to 
trace its body and tail ending with the stars 



A and v. The opposite side of the Milky Way 
now stretches its length across the sky, con- 
taining in its extent many brilliant con- 
stellations. Just east of Scorpio is the 
constellation' of Sagittarius,, the Archer. 
Well up in the_ southeast is the star Altair cf 
the constellation Aquila, the Eagle, and. 
just above Altair is the tinv constellation-, 
Sagitta or the Arrow. To the east may be 
seen Delphinus, the Dolphin, while to the east of 
Lyra is the constellation of Cygn us, the Swan, 



HI 



m||j (HINTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 




At ii o'clock; Sept 
" 10:30 



At 9 o'clock: June 7 
■.30 " " M 



At 9:30 o'clock: September 29 



NIGHT SKY: SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER. 



Our map for these two months shows no 
constellation immediately overhead. Half- 
way between the Zenith and the Pole Star 
is the constellation of Cephus, a badly formed 
W made up of stars that are not very bright, 
with the exception of a which is of second 
magnitude. The Milky Way now stretches 
overhead and makes a beautiful sight on a 
moonless ni?ht. About thirtv degrees south 
of the Zenith is the constellation Pegasus. 
Its three stars, y, a, and form with the star a 
of the constellation Andromeda, a large square 



known as the "Square of Pegasus. Below 
the constellation Pegasus is that of Aquarius, 
the Water Bearer, while to the southwest is 
tin- zodiacal constellation of Caprieornus. the 
Sea Goat. This constellation is marked by a 
very pretty naked eye dauble at o. The 
most conspicuous star in the south is Fomal- 
haut, of the Southern Fish. This brilliant 
star can hardly be appreciated in northern 
latitudes because it is not very favorably 

C laced for observation. Below Fomalhaut is a 
right little group known as Grus, (he Crane. 






THE HEAVENS ABOVE 



445 




3-IOd/ 



w 










i tv>* ' 






4* * ' > 



"^£S 













At ii o'clock: 
" 10:30 " 




Nov. 



At 9 o'clock: Dec. 
8: 3<> ." 



At 9:30 o'clock: November 30 



NIGHT SKY: NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER. 



Running westward from the zenith stretches 
the constellation of Andromeda, the chained 
lady who was rescued by Perseus. In this 
constellation may be seen a faint nebula which 
in a telescope is shown to cover an enormous 
extent, a great whirl of nebulous material 
Probably it represents a star in the making. 
The great square of Pegasus lies just to the 
south of the zenith. The southern sky is 
filled by the constellation of Cetus, the Whale. 
The most interesting star in this group is that 
qi Mini, which on the average of once in 



eleven months, blazes forth with a brilliance, 
sometimes exceeding the second magnitude 
Generally, however, it does not exceed the 
third magnitude, while its normal brightness 
is such that it is barely visible to the naked 
eye. Between Cetus and the zenith are three 
small constellations, t. e., Pisces, the Fishes. 
Aries, the Ram. and Triangulus, the Triangle. 
In the southeast sky is the wandering n ver, En 
danus, while the eastern sky is filled with bril- 
liant winter constellations described in the 
paragraph on the January .and February map 




WHEN UNCLE SAM'S WHISTLE BLOWS 

The total number "f persons In the legislative, executive and Judicial services "f the Federal 

Government on July l. 1915, was approximately l^s.711. The total number of 

officers nud enlisted men in the Army, Navy aud Marine Corps is 17l\0l!S 



PART III. 

UNCLE SAMS AUTOBIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER I. 
WASHINGTON— THE NATION'S CITY 



YOUR city is the most beautiful 
capital iu the world. There 
are those who sing the praises 
of London, Paris, Vienna, Berlin, 
Rome, Petrograd, and all have, 
claims well substantiated. But in 
plan, architectural beauty, embel- 
lishment, cleanliness, convenience, 
absence of poverty, spaciousness, in- 
terest, educational facilities — in all 



resentation in the taxing body, gov- 
erned without their consent, and 
made to stand by and look on at 
the spending of their money without 
a word to say (officially) as to how 
it shall be spent. And — strange 
though it seems in American eyes — 
this plan of the National City being 
taxed and governed by the National 
Government has resulted in the 




THE GATEWAY— WASHINGTON'S MAGNIFICENT UNION STATION 



that makes a city noted above other 
cities, Washington, the Nation's City 
as well as the Nation's Capital, 
stands unique and unapproachable. 
Most American of all cities, since 
it is owned by the Nation's Govern- 
ment, it is not less patriotic that it 
is the one spot in all free America 
where people are taxed without rep- 



wonderful municipality which is 
peerless among all cities. 

A Mecca for the sight-seeing tour- 
ist, Washington is still more a meet- 
ing place for those who pursue 
knowledge, for no spot on earth 
holds so much of learning for those 
who know how to dig it out. It 
has been well said that in Wash- 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



448 



mi; COUNTRY A.ND tTS fcESOURCES 



ington is the answer to any answer- 
able question — and some which have 
no answers, too! 

Considered as a municipality, en- 
tirely apart from governmental ac- 
tivities, Washington can hold up its 
head among the best. In streets, 
parks, and shade trees, in recrea- 
tion centers, police, fire and school 
systems, in privileges and pleasures, 
Washington is behind none of its 
size and ahead of many larger cities. 
It has a minimum amount of crime, 
a comparatively small indigent and 
poverty-struck population, no for- 
eign quarters, a climate which suf- 



President and confirmed by the Sen- 
ate, act as a combined Mayor and 
City Council for the District of 
Columbia's seventy square miles of 
territory, having charge of all de- 
partments of the local government. 
Washington is taxed as other muni- 
cipalities are taxed, but the money 
is spent by Congress, which adds a 
sum sufficient to make that raised 
by taxation exactly half of the total 
appropriated for any one year. In 
return for this "half-and-half prin- 
ciple" as it is known, all Govern- 
ment property — and the Government, 
of course, owns the most valuable 




PANORAMA OF WASHINGTON 



fers more from ill-repute than Wash- 
ingtonians do from its warm sum- 
mers, a just and liberal Government, 
no graft, party politics or factional 
fights, and. because it lives in and 
among the greatest law-making body 
in the world, a better comprehension 
of national problems than is pos- 
sible elsewhere. 

CITY GOVERNMENT 

Three commissioners, one of whom 
must be a major in the Army En- 
gineering Corps, appointed by the 



land and buildings in .the city — is 
free of taxation. The result of a 
wise and liberal policy of city im- 
provement has been the making of 
a municipality with more shade 
trees in proportion to its population 
(95,000 trees) than any other in the 
world, a city with a greater per- 
centage of paved streets per popu- 
lation than any other in the world, 
a city with wider streets, straighter 
streets, cleaner streets than any 
other in the world, and the estab- 
lishment of a parking system which 



WASHINGTON— THE NATIONS CITY 



449 



will, when completed, be the eighth 
wonder of the world for beauty, size 
and variety. 

THE CITY PLAN 

The original plan of the city con- 
templated its growth in an easterly 
direction across the plateau which 
forms the top of Capitol Hill, on 
the summit of which stands the 
I nited States Capitol. 

The city perversely grew the oth- 
er way, so that the wealthy resi- 
dence and all the business section. 



streets are numbered, those running 
east and west are lettered. The 
avenues, named for states in the 
Union, all run at various angles. 

The city is divided into four sec- 
tions — Northwest, Northeast, South- 
west, and Southeast, the division 
lines being North, East and South 
Capitol Streets, and an imaginary 
line running through the park 
known as the Mall, which would be 
West C-ipitol Street if it existed. 

Criss-crossing these streets, in ad- 
dition to the eight spokes of ave- 





A 




Fun' it mf* 


. -mwrw 




--.-- . -^-^-^ ■"'•■ ~~^-±i — ■- ---. -— „ 




mmm \ • ? - - ; " ^£L f."!f!I|!P|l ,l J!' . . . : . "nwn ilimiMIS 




WL'.iJ&mJ^ 




••."' ' .". v->- .-•-. 








) -'.. 



THE HEART OF THE NATION 



and practically all the Government 
buildings and activities, are west of 
and therefore to the rear of, the 
Capitol. Luckily, the rear elevation 
of the Capitol is as beautiful as its 
actual front. 

From both the Capitol and the 
White House radiate four great ave- 
nues, distinguished from other 
streets by running at an angle with 
the gridiron which forms the city. 
Washington' s north and south 



nues radiating from the Capitol and 
White House, are other slanting ar- 
teries of travel, confusing to the vis- 
itor, but making every part of the 
city quickly accessible from every 
other part to those who know how to 
take advantage of those hypoth- 
enuses of triangles. At junction 
points of lettered and numbered 
streets and avenues are parks, cir- 
cles, or statues, productive of those 
vistas and beauty spots which have 



4.-.II 



«tl R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



given the city the "pet name" of 
"Cits of magnificent Distances." 

PABKING SYSTEM 

Five great parks of many acres, 
twenty-six of more than one acre 
and two hundred and seventy-five 
smaller ones (not including the 
great military reservation at Fort 
Myer, Virginia, just across the river, 
and connected by a bridge with the 
Speedway), constitute a parking sys- 



and Lincoln Memorial (not yet com- 
pleted). The .Mall gives way to the 
Speedway, a river park made from 
reclaimed land, where there is swim- 
ming and boating and baseball, golf, 
tennis, polo and cricket grounds are 
to be found, band concerts occur and 
thousands of pedestrians, motorists, 
horseback riders and drivers have 
a place close to the beart of the 
city in which to enjoy their favorite 
recreations. 




WHERE AN INAUGURATION IS HELD, AND THE PROCESSION 



tern which lias no equal in the world, 
splitting the heart of the city east 
and west from Capitol Hill to the 
Potomac River is the Mall, a wide 
park on which are located (men 
tioned in order from the Capitol, go- 
big west i the Bon t a ideal Gardens, 
the Fish Commission. Medical Mu- 
seum, old National Museum, new 
National Museum. Smithsonian 
Building, old Department of Agri- 
culture Building, two wings of the 
new Department of Agriculture 
Building, Washington Monument. 



North of the Northwest Section is 
the National Zoo. where nearly 1,500 
animals of all sorts have comfortable 
and beautiful homes, in many cases 
in natural surroundings. Connected 
to the Zoo is the National Park, a 
reservation devoted entirely to nat- 
ural recreation. Far-seeing states 
men recognize the need of all cities 
for ample parking space, and beauti- 
ful Rock ('reel-: Valley lias been pre- 
served for all time to the Nation, 
nothing being done to it but the pro- 
viding of miles on miles of velvet 



Washington— the nation's city 



451 



roads and necessary bridges and 
fords. The combined area of Zoo 
and National Park is 1,776 acres. 

North of the Capitol and east 
from the National Park lies Soldiers' 
Home Park, a beautiful hilly coun- 
try with many fine roads, where the 
Nation maintains a magnificent 
home for its disabled soldiers. 

Plans now under way contemplate 
the connection of Zoo and National 
Parks with the Speedway and Mall, 
by driveways along the unimproved 




WASHINGTON MONUMENT, WASHING- 
TON, D. C, 



part of Rock Creek Valley, a plan 
which, when complete, will enable 
a motorist to drive for five or six 
hours without going over the same 
road twice, or even running on a 
city street, and yet be at no time 
more than a few miles from the 
center of the Nation — the United 
States Capitol. 



GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS 

They are so numerous that a com- 
plete catalogue would be wearisome. 
The visitor usually makes first for 
the Capitol, on Capitol Hill, where 
he also finds the indescribably won- 
derful Library of Congress, the two 
huge office buildings devoted to the 
use of Senators and Representatives, 
the Union Station — second to none 
in the world in beauty, and with a 
concourse capable of housing the en- 
tire standing army of the United 
States — all in an extension of the 
Mall. 

The buildings on the Mall have 
been mentioned ; in addition, just off 
the Mall and giving on the Speedway 
is the new Bureau of Engraving 
and Printing, the largest plant of its 
kind in the world. 

The White House, or Executive 
Mansion, stands between the Treas- 
ury and State, War and Navy De- 
partment Buildings, fronting on 
Pennsylvania Avenue, and giving to 
the rear on the "Ellipse," a part of 
the Mall. 

In the heart of the city are the 
Post Office, Pension Office, Land 
Office and Patent Office buildings 
(this latter the office also of the 
Secretary of the Interior) and scat- 
tered everywhere are related 
branches of the several departments. 
On the outskirts of the city are the 
United States Naval Observatory, 
where, among other things, is the 
great 26-inch refractor with which 
the moons of Mars were first seen, 
the Bureau of Standards, and fur- 
ther out, the first settling reservoirs 
of Washington's wonderful water 
supply system, which includes a fil- 
tration plant which provides crystal 
water regardless of the mud which 
may be in the Potomac. 

All Government buildings may be 
visited by visitors prior to two 
o'clock, and no charge is made any- 
where. 

Any official in the Government, 
from the President down, may be 
seen by any one with legitimate bus- 
iness, and every facility is put at 



452 



oTR COUNTRY' AND ITS RESOURCES 



the disposal of him who seeks in- 
formation by every department of 

the Government, with the exception 
of those necessarily restricted by 
their very nature — such as Army 
and Navy and Secret Service. 

There are many buildings, bureaus 
and activities which are wholly or 
partly separated from the Govern- 
ment. The National Geographic So- 
ciety, the City Library, the Volta 
Bureau, the Bureau of American Re- 
publics, the stupendous Scottish 
Rite House of the Temple, the hos- 



non, Washington's Borne, Annapo- 
lis, where they turn out Naval of- 
ficers. Great Palls, wild and rugged 
in beauty, source of the citj water 
supply and historic in that George 
Washington dug a canal around 
them, the remains of which are still 
to he seen, beautiful Harper's Ferry, 
historic in Civil" war days and mag- 
nificent in scenic beauty. Baltimore, 
forty miles distant by road or rail. 
Alexandria. Arlington (home of the 
Lees, and now the National Burying 
Ground) are all within an hour and 




•hoto Ilnrris & Ewing 
THE 



•OPEN DOOR" AT THE WHITE HOUSE 



pitals, schools, colleges, universities, 
private laboratories. Carnegie Insti- 
tute, etc., all add to the educational 
possibilities of the city. 

A dozen or more interesting lo- 
calities surround the Nation's City. 
The Navy Yard, where the big guns 
are made, the Arsenal Grounds, 
with the War College, St. Elizabeth, 
the home of the Nation's insane, 
Columbia Institution for the Deaf 
and I uiinb. Continental Hall 1 1 >. A. 
U.i. Corcoran Art Gallery, Mt. \'er- 



a half of the Capitol, some within 
a few minutes' travel, while Nor- 
folk and the Newport News ship- 
yards are but a night's boat ride 
away. 

Visitors not infrequently ask the 
length of time necessary properly to 
see the Nation's City. The resident, 
who knows, usually answers. "Not 
less than a year," and there is truth 
in the statement. 

indeed, those who are thoroughly 
familiar with the great national col 



WASHINGTON— THE NATION'S CITY 



45:* 




SCOTTISH KITE TEMPLE AT NIGHT 

lections say that a year is hardly 
enough really to see, let alone study, 
the wonders of either the Museum 
or the Library of Congress. 

So to those who may find in this 
brief sketch or the pictures which 
accompany it, any impetus to visit 
that city which is most truly Ameri- 
can, and which belongs in part to 
every American, it is said, "Stay as 
long as you can and do not think 
that a visit to every Government 
building in Washington, which could 
not possibly be accomplished in a 
week, means that yon have really 
seen the treasures which are yours. 
For Washington, belonging to the Na- 
tion, is its treasure house, and col- 
lected, kept, and made accessible 
here are such treasures of age, of 
curiosity, of interest, of educational 
value, of patriotic association, of 



real Americanism, as will require 
more time to see and appreciate 
than any have time to give — which 
fact is in itself one of the many 
things which makes the Nation's 




THE STATUE TO DAGUERRE 

City an inspiration and an example 
of all that is best in the ideals which 
make the United States "one na- 
tion indissoluble." 



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THE CORCORAN ART GALLERY 



CHAPTER II. 
THE LEGISLATIVE HALLS 

THE HEART OF THE NATION 



THE United States Capitol 
Building is the political and 
sentimental center of the 
United States, however far re- 
moved it may be from the geo- 
graphic center. 

Fronting east, it stands on a pla- 



Aquia Creek. Va., was laid with 
Masonic ceremonies September 18, 
1793, by President Washington. The 
original designs were prepared by 
Dr. William Thornton, and the work 
was done under the direction of 
Stephen H. Hallet, James Hoban, 




Photo by Harris & Ewin 



THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON 



teau 88 feet above the level of the 
Potomac, situated in latitude 38° 53' 
20.4" north and longitude 77° 00' 
35.7" west from Greenwich. 

The southeast cornerstone of the 
original building, constructed of 
sandstone taken from quarries on 



George Hadfield, and B. H. Latrobe, 
architects. The north wing, finished 
in 1800, and the south in 1811, were 
then connected by a wooden passage- 
way ! On August 24, 1814, the in- 
terior of both wings was destroyed 
by fire, set by the British. But the 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



45<; 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



damage was immediately repaired 
and in 1818 the central part of the 
building was begun, under the archi- 
tectural superintendence of Charles 
Bulfincb and was completed in L827. 
Up to ls27 the total cost of building 
and grounds was $2,433,844.13. 

The cornerstone of the extensions 
was laid on July 4, 1851, by Presi- 
dent Fillmore, with Daniel Webster 
officiating as orator. Thomas r. 
Walter directed the work till 1S65, 
when he resigned, and it was com- 
pleted under the supervision of Ed- 
ward Clark. White marble from 



value is probably far below the actu- 
al cost of replacement. 

The building stretches from north 
to south 751 feet 4 inches, and from 
east to west 350 feet is its greatest 
dimension. The area covered by the 
building is 153,112 square feet, more 
than 3.7 acres. 

The original dome was of wood, 
covered with copper, but this was 
replaced by the present structure of 
cast iron in 1865. With the bronze 
statue of Freedom on top, ID feet 
f» inches high, the total weight of 
the dome is 3,983 tons. The dome 




Photo Harris & Ewing 

THE SENATE CHAMBER IS NEVER PHOTOGRAPHED IN ACTION, THEREFORE 
HUMAN INTEREST IS LACKING IN THIS PICTURE 



the quarries at Lee, Mass.. was 
used in the walls and the columns 
came from quarries at Cockeysville, 
.Mil. The lbmse extension was first 
occupied for legislative purposes 
December 16, L857, and the Senate 
January 4. 1859. 

The Capitol Building and Grounds 
are officially valued as follows: 
Building, $15,000,000; grounds, $10,- 
400,00(1; total $25,400,000, But the 



is 287 feel 5 inches above the base 
line of the east front and 217 feet 
11 inches above the top of the balus- 
trade of the building, its greatest 

diameter at the base is 135 feet 
5 inches. The dome surmounts and 
covers what is known as the Ro- 
tunda, a circular room ;t7 feet 6 
inches in diameter, and is 180 feet 
.". inches high from the lloor to the 
top of the canopj 



TllL LEGISLATIVE HALLS 



457 



The three great Government activ- 
ities housed by the Capitol are the 
Senate, House of Representatives 
and the Supreme Court. 

The United States Senate Cham- 
ber is located in the left wing of the 
Capitol, or, as is better known, the 
North Wing. It has seats, of course, 
for the ninety-six senators who 
compose the Senate — two from each 
State regardless of size or popula- 
tion — and is surrounded with a gal- 
lery, in which more than a thousand 
spectators can find seating place. 

The room, 113 feet 3 inches long 
by SO feet 3 inches wide and 36 
feet high, is chaste, almost severe 
in architectural design (see picture), 
although the iron and stained glass 
ceiling gives a touch of co'or with 
the coat of arms of each State. 

The Senate is entirely too digni- 
fied a body ever to permit itself to 
be photographed, but is free in its 
welcome of visitors. The galleries 
are always open except when the 
Senate is in Executive session, when 
even the reporters', diplomatic and 
senators' private galleries are emp- 
tied and locked. 

Arranged in a succession of semi- 
circles, the senators' individual 
desks are all within sight and voice- 
reach of the chair of the Vice-Presi- 
dent, who presides over the Senate. 
Democrats sit on the Vice-Presi- 
dent's right, and Republicans on his 
left, a general statement which hard- 
ly holds good when the Senate is in 
session, because senators move 
around, talk from every point of 
vantage or sit with their friends. 

Ordinarily no one is permitted 
upon the floor of the Senate save 
present and ex-legislators, the pages 
who serve them with books, carry 
messages and run errands,, such 
clerks and officials as are a part of 
the official life of the Senate and 
representatives of certain newspa- 
pers and press associations. Only 
when the "Thanks of Congress" have 
been given to some fortunate in- 
dividual is this rule abrogated, the 
"Thanks of Congress" carrying with 



it the right to enter the Senate 
Chamber on the floor. But both 
houses of Congress extend the privi- 
lege of the floor to distinguish visi- 
tors at their pleasure. 

Directly opposite, in the South 
Wing of the Capitol, is the House of 
Representatives, where the 433 mem- 
bers of the House have their delib- 
erations. It is similar in arrange- 
ment to the Senate, but is much 
larger, being 139 feet long, 93 feet 
wide and 30 feet high. Its galleries 
will seat more than 2,000 people. 
The House has not space to provide 
each member with a desk ; indeed, if 
the country keeps on growing and 
the House keeps on in its present 
way of thinking, it will not be able 
to provide all its members with 
seats in a short while. As every 
one knows, the House itself fixes the 
population of a district which shall 
entitle that district to one repres< n- 
tative, but to increase the popula- 
tion quota with regard to the in- 
crease in the total population only, 
would be. for instance, to increase 
New York's representation and de- 
crease that of some western State:; 
not growing so fast, or some eastern 
States, like Delaware and Rhode Isl- 
and, which naturally grow more 
slowly, though as fast in proportion, 
as larger States. 

The House is generally admitted, 
even by itself, to be unwieldy in 
size, now that it possesses 435 mem- 
bers, exclusive of the delegates from 
noncontiguous possessions. What it 
will be when a new census is taken 
and a new apportionment made, no 
one can say. Meanwhile, semi-circu- 
lar rows of seats serve the members 
apparently as well as do their desks 
the senators. For no member gets a 
chance to make a speech of such 
length as will require voluminous 
notes, reports and books, speaking 
time being the most precious posses- 
sion in the House. In the Senate, 
where any senator who can get the 
floor can speak until dumb from 
throat paralysis, a desk capable of 
holding a good-sized slice of the Con- 



4r,S 



OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



gressional Library — with which the 
Capitol is connected by a subway 
with electric book carrying trains — 
is a vital necessity. 

No place in the world has a great- 
er interest to the public than the 
National Legislature of the United 
States. Two hundred and fifteen 
newspapers and press associations 
have 304 representatives to the press 
galleries of both houses, and a ma- 
jority of these are on duty every 
hour of every session of Congress. 
Of course, during executive sessions, 
all newspaper men are excluded, but 
as many Of the press representatives 
make it their business to have in- 
timate friends among the members 
of Congress, there is little if any- 



RepubliC and those who wrote the 
Constitution with unique and widely 
different powers these three 
branches of the Government operate 
in unity and serve as a check upon 
each other. 

The Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, forming together the 
Federal Legislature, commonly called 
Congress, are entirely dissimilar 
bodies. The House of Representa- 
tives lives for only two years, then 
dies completely, a new House being 
formed by the biennial election of 
the 4.".r> Representatives of the peo- 
ple of the various States. 

The Senate never dies: it has 1 n 

a continuous body since its first cre- 
ation. Senators are elected for six 




THE CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY 



thing which is really secret. Indeed, 
both Congress and the President 
trust the newspapers far more than 
is generally realized, and it is a 
credit to the profession that what 
should be kept under cover for 
diplomatic reasons, is concealed, not, 
because of absence of knowledge on 
the part of the correspondents, but 
because of loyalty and patriotism. 

It would be idle to discuss wheth- 
er the Senate, the House of Repre- 
sentatives, or the President of the 
United States is the most important 
factor in its government. Clothed 
by the wisdom of tin- founders of the 



years, but a senatorial election i- 
held every two years, one-third of 
the members of the Senate going out 
of office biennially. The result of this 
system is that a majority of the 
Senate is always composed of older 
and experienced members. Inasmuch 
as many Senators are re-elected, 
term after term, there is always a 
large proportion of men of ripe ex- 
perience and long service in the 
upper house of ( Jongress. 

Any variety of legislation with one 
important exception can originate in 
either branch of Congress. Appro- 
priation bills can only originate in 



THE LEGISLATIVE HALLS 



450 



the House of Representatives, but 
no appropriation bill can become a 
law until it is concurred in by the 
Senate. 

No bill of any sort, whether origi- 
nating in the Senate or the House 
of Representatives, becomes a law 
until it has been to the Presi- 
dent for his signature. He is sup- 
posed to return these bills to Con- 
gress within ten days. If he signs 
the bill it becomes a law ; if he fails 
to sign in ten days a bill automati- 
cally becomes a law. If, however, 
the President returns a bill vetoed, 
that is, with his signature refused, 



difference between 21S and 290 is 
72, the theoretical voting power 
which the President possesses in the 
House of Representatives. 

In the Senate, the bare majority of 
the 96 Senators is 49 and a two- 
thirds majority necessary to pass a 
bill in the Senate over the Presi- 
dent's veto is 64, the difference be- 
ing 15 Senators, representing the 
theoretical power of the President 
in vote in the Senate. 

Methods of work in Senate and 
House are entirely different. There 
is no attempt in the Senate to limit 
the speaking of a Senator on any 




Photo Harris & Ewing 

STATE, WAR AND NAVY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



it is required that the bill be passed 
again by both Houses of Congress 
by a tiro-thirds majority before it 
can become a law. 

This is equivalent to giving the 
President the power to vote in the 
negative, in theory at least, of sev- 
enty-two Representatives and fifteen 
Senators. 

If a bill be passed in the House 
of Representatives by a bare ma- 
jority of one of the 435 members it 
will receive 218 votes in the affirma- 
tive against 217 in the negative. If, 
however, the President vetoes the 
bill, it will require 290 votes to pass 
it, 290 being two-thirds of 435. The 



subject. He, therefore, can talk as 
long as he desires and a "filibuster," 
as it is called, when some Senator 
or group of Senators desires to de- 
feat a bill by talking it to death, or 
talking until Congress expires, or 
until its opponents are so disgusted 
that they will yield to the "filibus- 
ter," is not of infrequent occurrence. 
No such procedure is a possibility in 
the House. In the House debate is 
limited by the rules or by mutual 
agreement to a certain length of 
time. 

When a bill is introduced into the 
House, it is immediately referred to 
some committee. There are fifty- 



460 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



nine committees in the House and 
seventy-five in the Senate. In addi 
tion there are a Dumber of joinl 
committees. 

The two most important commit- 
tees in the House are those on Ways 
and Means, and Appropriations, and 
membership in either is a mark of 
confidence by the House. The 
House eleets the Ways and Means 
Committee, which acts as a Com- 
mittee on Committees, and it ap- 
points all the other committees. 
Chairmanship of a committee is a 
matter of seniority of service in the 
House. 

No legislation gets to the floor of 
the House for the discussion of the 




xsrv^ , 



POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT BUILDING 
House as a whole except as referred 

to the House by the committee or by 
unanimous consent. Therefore, the 
committee is extremely important to 
all legislation and nine out of ten 
of the thousands and thousands of 
bills of all kinds, which are pro- 
posed in the House, are quietly 

strangled in committee and never see 

further light 

Inasmuch as many such bills are 



proposed merely for "home consump- 
tion" and in order to make an im- 
pression on the "folks hack home." 
this system works out without hard- 
ship either to the Representative 
proposing the hill, the hill itself, or 
the House of Representatives as a 

whole. 

The committee, the members of 
which may he anywhere from three 
to twenty in number, will debate a 
proposed hill, hold public hear- 
ings for the benefit of interested 
parties, make amendments to it, 
and finally offer it. perhaps in a 
completely changed form, hack to the 
House for consideration. The House 
can then pass it or reject it at its 
pleasure. Having succeeded in pass- 
im: the House, such a hill goes to 
the Senate and the Senate can then 
either pass it or reject it. In the 
more common cases a hill passed by 
the House which is not entirely 
pleasing to the Senate is revised or 
amended by the Senate and then 
sent hack to the House. In case it 
is impossible for the two branches 
of the Legislature to agree upon a 
bill, a Conference Committee is ap- 
pointed, usually of three members of 
each House, which Conference Com- 
mittee meets and endeavors to ef- 
fect a compromise and the com- 
promise hill is frequently passed 
without further debate by both 
Houses of ( Jongress. 

Xo story of the House of Repre 
sentatives would be complete which 
did not contain a few words of ref- 
erence to the most powerful figure 
in the House, who is. of course, the 
Speaker. The Speaker at one time 
appointed I he members of all com- 
mittees. Including that of the Com- 
mittee of Rules, which determines 
the order in which important meas- 
ures shall come before the House. 
In the old days he was himself 
chairman of this committee, but, in 
1910, the House took this power 
away from its Speaker. It increased 
the Committee on Rules from five 
to ten and agreed that the House 
itself should make the appointments. 



The legislative halls 



461 



This has shorn the Speaker of his 
previous power but he still has 
plenty left. He can recognize or 
refuse to recognize any member try- 
ing to address the Chair and can 
thus accelerate or retard the pas- 
sage of any bill. 

The fact that, the House elects 
usually as its Speaker a national fig- 
ure in politics and a man of great 
force of character as well as of 
brains is one of the safeguards of 
the national legislature. He is, of 
course, invariably elected by a strict 
party vote, a Democratic House of 
Representatives becoming the more 
powerful as a Democratic organiza- 
tion by possession of a Democratic 
Speaker, the same obtaining for a 
Republican House. 

The wisdom of our forefathers in 
providing for a Senate, composed of 
two men from each State, represent- 
ing the States, and not the people, 
to act as a check upon the Repre- 
sentatives of the people in the House 
of Representatives, is continually 
made manifest. The Senate acts 
often as a brake upon the too head- 
long action of the House and many 
an ill-considered piece of legislation, 
enacted with insufficient debate, and, 
perhaps, in the heat of partisan feel- 
ing in the House, has been so altered 
in the Senate that its originators 
could not recognize it when it finally 
came back to them. 

The final bulwark of the people 
against wrong action on the part of 
the National Legislature is the Su- 
preme Court, which must pass upon 
the constitutionality of disputed en- 
actments ; and with first a commit- 
tee, next a House, then a Senate, 
then, perhaps, a joint committee, 
again an action by both House and 
Senate, a possible veto, a re-enact- 
ment over that veto and finally pos- 
sible review by the Supreme Court, 
as to the admissibility of legislation 
under the Constitution of the United 
States, that law must be ingenious 
indeed which is unjust or ill-advised 
when finally read into the Statutes 
of the United States. 



SUPREME COURT 

If the Senate feels its dignity to 
such an extent as never to yield to 
the blandishments of the press pho- 
tographer or motion picture director, 
what must be said of the Supreme 
Court? To imagine this body per- 
mitting itself to be photographed is 
an impossibility. Of course, there 
are plenty of photographs showing 
the Supreme Court in session, but 
none of them are real. All are made 
by combining pictures of the vari- 
ous justices with an interior of the 
Court; a real photograph has never 
been made. 

The Supreme Court room was 
formerly the Senate Chamber. Un- 
til 1S59 the Senate met in the pres- 
ent Court room, the Court then sit- 
ting in the room beneath, which is 
now the Law Library. It is a sim- 
ple and impressive room even when 
unoccupied, and when the Court is 
in session no American can look 
upon its deliberations unmoved, for 
it represents to him the very apothe- 
osis of the democracy on which his 
nation is built, the justice and lib- 
erty which make America, America. 

As every American knows, the 
Supreme Court is the one branch 
of the Government which has abso- 
lutely no connection with politics, 
with patronage, with partisan meth- 
ods of any kind. Justices, appointed 
for life, can only be removed for 
high crimes or misdemeanors, and 
no justice ever has been removed 
since the Court was founded. Presi- 
dents with Supreme Court vacancies 
to fill have all realized that the 
American people would scrutinize 
their appointments with the keenest 
eyes, and let the Senate know in no 
uncertain manner if they did not 
approve. The result has been a con- 
tinuing body which represents the 
highest legal and personal attain- 
ments, and one which, although it 
often makes decisions which are un- 
satisfactory to many people, is never 
questioned as to its integrity by its 
most violent critics. 

An appointment to the Supreme 



462 



OT'R COTJNTRT AND ITS RESOURCES 




Photo Harris & Bwing 



UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT 



Bench is justly regarded as exceeded 
in honor only by the Presidency, and 
many contend that as the one is a 
permanent appointment, the other 
but a temporary position, the nine 
Supreme Court Judgeships represent 
the nine highest honors America 
has to offer. Certain it is that no 
man who has sat on the Supreme 
Bench has ever lacked for apprecia- 



tion from his fellow citizens, or 
honor from them for the high at- 
tainment which put him there. 

The Court sits from October to 
June, from noon until 4 P. M., five 
days in the week, reserving Satur- 
day for consultation. Strangers are 
permitted to visit the court at all 
times, although accommodations are 
limited. 




THE PRESIDENT DELIVERING THE INAUGURAL ADDRESS 



CHAPTER III. 
THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE 



THE real functions of the government which obtain in 

President of the United States Europe. 

are. curiously enough, com- As a matter of fact, the President 

paratively little understood by the of the United States has executive 

body politic. He is usually re- powers which, in many ways, are 




Photo Copyright by G. V. Buck. Washington. T). C. 

EXECUTIVE STAFF OF THE WHITE HOUSE 

ferred to in conversation as being considerably less in extent than 

the equal of any prince, poten- those possessed by many a prime 

tate, czar or other ruler of the minister of a European country and 

monarchies or other forms of decidedly less power than many 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



466 



mi: COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



monarchs. On the other hand, the 
Presidenl of the United States en- 
joys certain privileges and powers 

ii, ,1 possessed by even the rulers of 
absolute monarchies. 

The three principal functions of 
the Presidenl may be stated as a 
control of foreign relations, those 
powers which are concerned with 
Legislation, and those which relate 
t<> the domestic administration, the 
latter largely concerned with the 
matter of appointments and patron- 
age, particularly in the appointment 
of members of the Supreme Court. 

The President lias a practically 
unfettered initiation in regard to all 



when the Mexican war began with- 
out any initiative by Congress. 

A question frequently asked of 
those who know, and especially by 
new Congressmen who come for the 
first time to the great legislative 
halls upon Capitol Hill, is "What is 
the form of the President's power 
over Congress? By what means 
does he bend this immense legisla- 
ture representing the forty-eight 
States and the hundred million of 
people, to his will?" 

The answer to this question is ex- 
tremely complicated if taken up in 
detail, but in its broad essentials 
the control of the President over 




Photo Harris & (Swing 

TELEGRAPH ROOM, EXECUTIVE OFFICES, WHITE HOUSE 



foreign affairs, but is checked in 
his control of the foreign relations 
Of the United States by the Senate. 
Which must approve by a two-thirds 
majority all treaties negotiated with 
a foreign country through the De- 
partment of State for the President. 
While the power to declare war 

belongs entirely to Congress, it is 
perfectly possible for an Executive, 
without an act of Congress, virtu- 
ally to engage in hostilities. An ex 
ample of this is recent within the 
public mind in the expedition sent 
across the Mexican border. A some 
what similar case occurred in 1845 



Congress may be stated to lie in 
four great things. In the first place, 
there is that political unity of a 
party which means so much to the 
politician. Supposing that the Pres 
ident has a majority in Congress 
(and few Presidents have made 
much headway without it*, the Con- 
gress is naturally desirous of ap- 
pearing before the country as sup- 
porting and aiding the President in 
his work. The President then has 
the political power of his party be- 
hind him in any request which he 
makes of Congress or any sugges- 
tions which he gives them. 



THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE 



46] 



This more or less sentimental con- 
sideration, however, is probably of 
less avail than the three great pre- 
rogatives which the President has. 
These are, of course, the power of 
vetoing legislation passed by Con- 
gress, which does not meet his views, 
the power of calling an extra ses- 
sion of Congress and the power of 
making numerous appointments, 
many of which serve as "payments" 
for political work or for something 
done for the President by some Con- 
gressman or Senator. 

The veto is employed a hundred 



President responsible for the con- 
duct of the Government and are usu- 
ally with him, right or wrong. Sen- 
ators and Representatives know that 
when a bill is vetoed, they will have 
to explain and explain pretty 
promptly to their constituents just 
why they are right and the Presi- 
dent is wrong if they are going to, 
to use a slang phrase, "get by with 
it." 

It has sometimes been suggested 
by some members of Congress who 
did not want legislation desired by 
the White House to pass, that by 




Photo Harris & Ewing 

THE WHITE HOUSE— HOME OF THE PRESIDENT AND CENTER OF WASHINGTON'S 

SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 



times in a veiled threat to once in 
actuality. More than one Senator 
or Representative has been quietly 
told, perhaps by the President, more 
likely by some friend, that this or 
that particular bill has no oppor- 
tunity to pass unless a tiro-thirds 
majority can be mustered. This 
threat of the veto is usually suffi- 
cient to keep undesirable legislation 
from passage. Every Senator and 
Representative knows that the peo- 
ple of the United States hold the 



making an agreement to end the ses- 
sion of Congress on such and such 
a day and so arranging matters that 
the objectionable legislation did not 
Come up, the President might be cir- 
cumvented without an open break. 
Older members, however, know 
that the Congress has power only 
to end its deliberation. The Presi- 
dent has the power, guaranteed un- 
der the Constitution, of calling a 
special session at any time when it 
may be necessary to do so. 



40S 



OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



More than one President has in- 
formed a Congress, anxious to end 
without passing legislation which he 
deemed necessary, thai if it did so, 

a special session would Immediately 
be called. Here again is the neces- 
sity for the legislator to explain to 
his constituents just why there is an 
extra session! The majority will 
not believe the President called a 
special session of Congress without 
a reason therefor and the question 
most naturally arising is "What is 
that reason?" If it had to be ex- 
plained to the people that Congress 



time become that recent Presidents 
have ruled that they positively would 
not see office seekers. Mr. Wilson 
has gone even further and refuses 
to discuss patronage matters with 
Senators, Representatives or politi- 
cians. Unquestionably, all Presidents 
have had to break their rules at 
times, but generally this refusal has 
served to give them much time for the 
public business which would other- 
wise be wasted. Most Presidents refer 
officer seekers to heads of depart- 
ments and thus lift from their 
shoulders a burden none the less 




PhotO Harris & Owing 

THE WHITE HOUSE KITCHEN IS LARGE ENOUGH TO PROVIDE FOR LARGE 

BANQUETS 



has been negligent or has been at- 
tempting to pass over its responsi- 
bilities and failed to support the 
President, there is naturally apt to 
be fireworks at the next Congres- 
sional election. 

The appointive power of the Pres- 
ident has its drawbacks. Thousands 
who want jobs either try to see the 
President personally, or try to have 
"a friend" see him in their behalf. So 
gnat have office seeking calls on his 



great thai it is concerned with 

minor matters. 

Of course, the office seeker still 
dogs the President's door and many 
who, as one quaint wit expressed 
it. "also want to serve who only 
Stand and wait" are still to lie found 
in the White House. Put if such 
an pffice seeker gets the President's 
car he is apt to find a chilly atmos- 
phere when he gets to the real 
reason for his visit. 



THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE 



469 



While it is true that the Presi- 
dent has no powers over Congress 
save such as are conferred upon him 
by the veto, the extra session call, 
appointments and the opinion of the 
people of the United States, it may 
nevertheless be said that his con- 
trol of the Government is more ab- 
solute than his strictly legal powers 
might presuppose. More and more 
is this single man being considered 
by the American people as its Gov- 



sired enactments, which are thus 
known as '"executive legislation." 

As a matter of fact, the President 
has no power to introduce any bills 
into Congress. He can merely indi- 
cate to Congress by messages what 
his desires, opinions or feelings are 
in regard to any immediate legisla- 
tion. But practically, having at his 
disposal Federal patronage which is 
of value to many Senators and Rep- 
resentatives, he frequently can ob- 




Photo Harris & Ewinpr 

THE FAMILY LINEN IS WASHED IN THIS LIGHT AND AIRY LAUNDRY 



eminent, and less and less is it hold- 
ing Congress responsible for the con- 
duct of that Government. 

If it were not for the provision 
which makes it necessary for the 
Senate to concur in Presidential ap- 
pointees to the more important posi- 
tions at his disposal he would be 
invested with a much vaster power 
than he actually is. Nevertheless, a 
tremendous quantity of Federal pat- 
ronage is within the gift of the 
President and it is by the use of this 
patronage that he is frequently able 
to swing Congress into line with de- 



tain the introduction of such bills 
or push through such legislation as 
may seem to him to be good. 

It will sound strange to many 
ears but the so-called Cabinet of the 
United States has no legal existence. 
The cabinet ministers of England are 
an integral part of the Government. 
The cabinet officers of the United 
States are but the heads of the sev- 
eral departments. 

True, there is nothing in the Con- 
stitution or any law which restricts 
the President from making such free 
choice as he may desire of those 



t70 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



gentlemen who stand at the head 
of the several great departments of 
the Government, but when they are 
called into conclave to advise with 
the President, they have no power 
whatever save as personal friends, 
giving their advice and opinions in 
matters which he may submit to 
them. 

An exception should be noted to 

the restricted powers of the Presi- 
dent when a state of war exists. 
At such a time the Presidential pow- 
er immediately swings to its maxi- 



Republicans, Democrats, Progres- 
sives. Prohibitionists, Socialists, men 

of .every pauty and political faith, 
unite in support of the President in 
matters which concern the welfare 
of. the country, and to this patriotic 
feeling and belief in the integrity 
of the holder of the Presidential of- 
fice can he found the root of that 
power which the President enjoys 
in time of national st ress. 

The only way in which a Presi- 
dent can he removed from office is 
by—the process of .impeachment. This 




Harris & Ewing 

THE PRESIDENT'S ROOM AT THE CAPITOL 
Rarely nsed except at the end <>f a session 



mum. As commander of the Army 
and Navy and charged with the wel- 
fare of the Nation, in time of war 
his powers may exceed those vested 
in any other niler in any country. 
The American people have an im- 
mense reverence for the position of 
( Jhief Executive of the Nation, and 
any man who obtains that office is 
at once invested by all Americans 
with an authority and a dignity far 
bevond that of any other ruler. 



process is a prerogative of the 
House of Representatives, An im- 
peached President is tried by the 

Senate sitting as a court with the 
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court 
of the United States presiding. Only 

one President of the United States 
has ever been impeached. Andrew 
Johnson, and the impeachment was 
not sustained. 

In addition to advising with the 
cabinet officers in regard to the con- 



THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE 



471 



duct of the business of the United 
States Government, the President 
has a busy time with foreign re- 
lations. He must not only appoint 
all ambassadors and ministers to 
foreign countries, but he receives the 
Ambassadors of foreign countries to 
this nation and deals directly with 
those representatives of foreign gov- 
ernments and rulers. He has an 
enormous official and personal cor- 
respondence, the greater part of 
which, of course, is handled in a 



not yet been accomplished, but which 
has threatened on more than one 
occasion and may yet become a fact. 
There is nothing in the Constitu- 
tion or the laws of the United States 
to forbid the continual re-election of 
one man to the Presidency. 

Still a third unwritten law is that 
popular opinion that the President 
must necessarily attend to business 
in the White House. A President is 
entitled, by lack of any restrictions 
to the contrary, to live in any part 




Photo Harris & Ewing 

THE PRESIDENT SIGNING THE SAN ANTONIO BILL, MAKING IT LAW 



routine manner by a large force of 
clerks in the White House. 

There are a number of unwritten 
laws in regard to the Presidency, 
most of them more honored in the 
breach than in the observance. One 
is to the effect that the President of 
the United States should not leave 
the United States during his term 
in office, a thing, however, which has 
been done. 

Another concerns the election of 
a President for more than two con- 
secutive terms, a feat which has 



of the United States he desires and 
cannot be compelled by any power, 
other than that of public opinion, to 
remain in Washington or attend to 
business ! He can take a vacation 
every day in the year if he wants 
and no one can call him to account 
save the House of Representatives 
by impeachment proceedings. 

The President of the United States 
is an extraordinarily busy man. Just 
how busy it is almost impossible for 
the uninitiated to appreciate. 

While it is perfectly possible for 



472 



nil! COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



any citizen of the United States who 
has business with the President to 
see him, it is not possible for even 
B Senator or a member of the Cab- 
inet to walk in upon the President 
uninvited. It is necessary for any 
one having business with the Presi- 
dent to make an engagement in ad- 
vance. At the beginning of every 
business day a slip of paper headed 
The President's Engagements" is 
laid before the President showing 



The Presidents Engagements 

T -rpjny. Fobruary i~ . - 

\^ 

10:25 a. a. ' Rep; Saall and Beaters 
Carohr.) delegation. 

10:20 ftiu. l>p; Gudrer. 

^10:35 a..-,. K;.,,.. , ..- : . ., 



•<0-50 i 

Yy.u ■ 

//:- 

., ISrOO I 

I/' 

.12:15 ] 

12:30 : 
12:15 | 



fij!. Kill il j . .. 

I s : 

Rep. KaJcor. . 
:.-y. Portel . 

raring. 



exactly what he has or his secre- 
tary has agreed he shall do with 
his time. Such a Presidential en- 
gagement slip is reproduced here- 
with, and shows that from 10:25 A. 
M. to 12:4.") P. M.. which is shortly 
before lunch, the President has en- 
gaged to See and talk with sixteen 
different people. 

As a matter <>f fact, twenty-four 
hours is all too short for any Presi- 
dent to get through the hundreds of 



routine and thousands of official 
matters which require his attention 
daily. No President has ever abused 
the confidence of the American peo- 
ple. All have been extremely hard- 
working men who took vacations and 
laid down their work only when 
their health absolutely required it. 
For the job of being President of 
the United States is perhaps the 
hardest individual piece of work 
which any man can possibly do and 
the reward of $75,000 a year and 
$25,000 for traveling expenses is far 
smaller than the responsibility of 
the position should demand. When 
it is considered that there are sev- 
eral men in this country drawing a 
salary of one million dollars a year 
or more for commercial work and 
any number of railroad presidents 
and presidents of corporations whose 
salaries exceed that of the President 
of the United States, it can well be 
understood how the principal emolu- 
ments of the office of Chief Execu- 
tive are found in the honor and 
glory of directing the destinies of 
the greatest nation in the world, and 
not in any material reward which 
the position may bring. 

Outside the White House, the per- 
son of the President is always 
guarded with Secret Service at- 
tendants. If he goes to the theater 
— which the present occupant of the 
White House does often — he has. of 
course, his own box. Somewhere 
near are the Secret Service men. 
wlm precede him to the box and 
watch it from the rear and from 
the audience. If the President goes 
automobiling, a huge Secret Service 
car with 1". S. s. S. on the rear, 
follows him. When out on the high- 
road, no ear passes the Secret Ser- 
vice car and the White House car 
from the rear. If the President 
happens to want to travel at fifteen 
miles an hour, he may come into 
the city at the head of a proces- 
sion of a hundred cars, all of them 
anxious to pass, but none of them 
able to get by the Secret Service 
car. the crew of which is taking no 



THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE 



473 



chances with the crank who might 
annoy, or worse, the President of 
the United States. 

The public reception — a relic of 
days when visitors to the Nation's 
Capitol were few and far between — 
*is one of the trials of a President's 
life. He must learn to be more 
than expert in his greeting, or he 
will have a hand and arm incapaci- 
tated for work by the too cordial 
grasps of his admirers. Indeed, 
often in small receptions to a visit- 
ing delegation or convention, at- 
tendants will quietly pass the word 
and request all visitors to be careful 
not to grip the President's hand 
hard. Perhaps no President who 
ever shook hands with five thousand 
people in an afternoon had this mat- 
ter down to a finer science than 
President Roosevelt, whose method 
of shaking hands left the visitor 
nothing to do but grin and bear it; 
the firm and sudden grip was, of 
course, self-preservative. 

The President, nominally the head 
of Washington society, has little 
time for gayety.and the White House 
is not normally the scene of enter- 
tainment. Of course, official recep- 
tions to the Cabinet, and to members 
of Congress and to the Diplomatic 
Corps are necessary and frequent oc- 
currences, but as a rule our Presi- 
dents have been too busy to indulge 
in those formal and elaborate func- 
tions more characteristic of older 
countries than one which is largely 
built on the idea of the value of 
time. c 

The President of the United 
States, in addition to his numerous 
duties as Chief Magistrate, finds 
time to be also President of the 
American Red Cross, cx-offieio Pres- 
ident of the Washington National 
Monument Society, patron cx-officio 
of the Columbia Institution for the 
Deaf, a Member of the Smithsonian 
Institution, Chairman of the Arling- 
ton Memorial Bridge Commission 
and member of the Commission on 
Memorial to Women of the Civil 
War. 



THE WHITE HOUSE 

No nation in the world with any 
pretensions to size or importance 
houses its king, potentate, emperor, 
czar or president as poorly as the 
United States provides for its Chief 
Executive, and probably not until 
the Executive Mansion or White 
House crumbles to dust or burns to 
the ground will this condition be 
remedied. No President likes to say 
that what was good enough for 
Washington and Lincoln and Mc- 
Kinley is not good enough for him. 
President Roosevelt had the courage 
to add two wing-like structures to 
the White House, the one for the 
accommodation of visitors at the 
great White House receptions, the 
other to accommodate executive of- 
fices, clerks, files, etc., but with this 
exception the White House stands 
to-day what it has been for many 
years, a residence not comparable in 
size, beauty, convenience or utility 
with a dozen private residences in 
the Capitol City and thousands 
throughout the land. 

Built of Virginia freestone, and 
painted white since 1S14 to conceal 
the marks of the fire which de- 
stroyed it when the British worked 
their will with the then struggling 
capital, the White House is to-day 
what it has always been — a two 
story structure but 170 feet long and 
86 feet deep. It is beautiful with 
the beauty of simplicity ; designed 
by James Hoban from the home of 
the Duke of Leinster near Dublin, 
it has architecturally satisfying 
lines, and the great portico with 
Ionic columns is not unimpressive. 
Moreover, the house is modernized 
inside, and has, of course, all modern 
conveniences of light, heat, ventila- 
tion, convenient kitchens, laundries, 
garage, servants' quarters, etc. But 
the fact remains that it is a relic of 
an age when the Government of the 
United States was on trial, when the 
tide which receded from the ' pomp 
and royalty of the mother country 
ran far up on the shores of sim- 
plicity and plain liviug, and that 




Photos Harris & [Swing 

State Dining Room 



The East Room 

Garden Facade 

THE WHITE HOUSE 



The President's Desk 



THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE 



47-"» 



it is all out of keeping with the won- 
derful buildings now being con- 
structed for the Government, and 
built by it for its own use in times 
past. It is almost laughable to think 
of a two million dollar memorial to 
Lincoln — who so loved simplicity — 
and a shelter provided for the exist- 
ing chief magistrate which would be 
dear at almost any price ! 

The White House is beautifully sit- 
uated in extensive grounds, with a 
private and fenced-in park of its 



own to the rear as well as in front, 
in which are to be found many shade 
trees, plants of all sorts, fountains, 
a tennis court, etc. 

The White House is open to visi- 
tors at certain times, and any one 
can see the President who has a 
real reason for wanting to see him. 
But he is well guarded from an- 
noyance or the mere seeker for sen- 
sation, and no one gets to him with- 
out running a gauntlet of guard, 
and clerk and secretary. 





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CHAPTER IV. 
THE CABINET 



IN the Cabinet deliberations the 
President is both morally and 

legally supreme. While the Cabinet 
of the United States has no legal ex- 
istence as such it has by custom 
become an integral part of the 
United States Government. The 
Constitution says that the President 
has the power to "require the 
opinion in writing of the principal 
officer in each of the Executive De- 
partments upon any subject relating 
to the duties of their respective 
offices." Later on, it says, "The 
Congress may by law vest the ap- 
pointment of such inferior officers 
as they deem proper in the Presi- 
dent alone, in the courts of law or 
the heads of the Departments." That 
is all the Constitution says of what 
is generally called the Cabinet. 
However, the President's choice of 
the heads of the various Depart- 
ments of the United States is rare- 
ly, if ever, questioned by the Sen- 
ate, it being recognized that he has 
the right to call to his assistance 
men in whose judgment and wis- 
dom he has confidence and with 
whom he can work and advise to 
the benefit of the country at large. 

When the Cabinet meets, the 
President sits at the head of the 
table and the various cabinet mem- 
bers around it in the order of their 
seniority. It is generally supposed 
that questions are submitted to the 
Cabinet first for discussion and 
later that the Cabinet officers vote 
upon them. Such, of course, is not 
the case. The Cabinet acts in an 
advisory capacity only and has no 
power over the President in any 



way whatsoever. There is a story, 
probably apocryphal, of General 
Grant, who, when he and his Cab- 
inet disagreed as to a certain policy, 
offered to put the matter to a vote. 
The President is reported to have 
Called upon his Cabinet members in 
turn, beginning with the Secretary 
of State. .As each Cabinet member's 
name was called, he is said to have 
answered "Aye." When the Presi- 
dent had finished he called his own 
name and gravely responded "No." 
Then he said to the assembled Cab- 
inet officers, "There are seven votes 
in the affirmative and one in the 
negative and," here President Grant 
paused, "the negative vote is in the 
majority." Whereupon the Presi- 
dent did as he had intended to do 
all along in spite of the advice of his 
officers ! 

In the event of any serious disa- 
greement between a Cabinet officer 
and the President there is only one 
course open and that is a resigna- 
tion. Historic instances will occur 
to many. What is not so generally 
known, however, is that some Cab- 
inet officers have to be asked to re- 
sign. Sometimes the asking is out- 
right, as in a story told of Grant 
who made one of his Cabinet offi- 
cers sit down at his own desk and 
dictated his resignation for him, and 
sometimes it is more gentle, as in 
the case of President McKiuley and 
Secretary of War Alger. There was 
difference of opinion between Presi- 
dent McKinley and his Secretary 
of War, and it is understood that 
it was not until a very vigorous 
hint had been given by those close 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc, 



478 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



to the President that Mr. Alger saw 
the light and tendered his resigna- 
tion. The case of Mr. Ballinger is 
fresh in the public mind and stu- 
dents of polities, at least, will not 
need to be reminded that this gentle- 
man stayed in office for some time 
after there was a decided degree of 
friction between him and the Chief 
Magistrate of the land. 

The President has a personal sec- 
retary, who in turn lias many as- 
sistants. The job of being private 
secretary to the President of the 



United States is not. as one might 
think, that of an amanuensis. Ra- 
ther has the office Lhe dignity of a 

personal cabinet officer. The sec- 
retary to the President of the United 
States must be a man of great tact, 
ready memory, and have an able 
grasp upon political affairs. He 
is the one man about him whom the 
President must be in a position to 
trust absolutely, and the character 
of the many irentlemen who have 
held this office has been well shown 
by their future careers. 




Xporto — 
WoMiv/CA" mc ys/P 






V «?i* .£.£ *>;?,?& CLAIMS.^ 



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THE DISTRICT Of COLUMBIA. 
architect excise seiters 
assessor riREOEPT streets 

AUDITOR HEALTH STCtEAHIMC 
CHARITY IHSPECT* SURVEYOR 
COUNSEL POLICE TREES 
COLLECTOR SCHOOLS HATER OEPT 
PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION 




ORGANIZATION OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH OF THE 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT 

Prepared by Mr. w. i. Swanton. Assistant Engineer IT. s. R. S. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 



THE following brief notes rep- 
resent the abridgment of 
a ninety-two page pamphlet, 
prepared by the direction of the 
Secretary of State, which shows 
the enormous condensation nec- 
essary in a work of this kind. 



Vice-rresident die, the Secretary of 
State would become President. This 
really makes him the "Premier," al- 
though there is no official sanction 
for the title. 

The act of July 27, 1789, created 
an executive department, to be 




Photo by Harris & Ewing 

THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES 

Separate written authority from the President must accompany his signed document 

before the Seal can be impressed 



The Department of State is of par- 
ticular interest, in view of the fact 
that, after the Vice-President, the 
Secretary of State is the ranking of- 
ficial of the Government. In other 
words, should both the President and 



known as the Department of For- 
eign Affairs. By the act of Sep- 
tember 15, 17S9, the name of the 
department was changed to that of 
the Department of State, the princi- 
pal officer thereof to be called the 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



180 



OUR COl VI'KY AND ITS KKSOlKi KS 



Secretary of state, and provision 
was made for the safe-keeping of 

the acts, records, and seal of the 
United States. 

THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA 

The Department of State looks ask- 
ance at any reproduction of the Great 
.Seal and will never sanction its publi- 
cation or use. but it will be found in 
cyclopedias, dictionaries and atlases. So 
its publication here needs no apology. 
although a request to make a cut of 
a passport was denied the writer largely 
because the Great Seal was shown <>n 
it. When properly understood the seal 
should have the same respect as the 
flag. A committee was appointed an 
July 4. 177U. to prepare a Great Seal. 



posed to represent Congress. This all 
symbolizes the union and strength of 
tiie States jiri served through the aid of 
Congress. The olive branch in the "dex- 
ter" talon represents peace, while the 
"sinister" talon holds thirteen arrows. 
In his beak is a scroll with the motto, 
"E Pluribus Initm" (one unity composed 
of many parts i. What is above is 
called the "crest." but it is not really 
a crest at all, because the stars could 
not be tangibly represented as in na- 
ture, and attached to the top of a hel- 
met, or could reasonably be represented 
as resting on a shield. 

The reverse, which has never been 
cut, consists of an unfinished pyramid. 
In the zenith is an eye in a triangle 
surrounded by a glory. On the base 
of the pyramid are the letters, 
"MDCCLXXVI," and underneath the 
motto. "NOVUS ORDO 8ECLORUM" 
(a new series of ages), while above is 




THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES 



The members were Benjamin Franklin, 
John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, Sev- 
eral excellent designs were submitted, 
but Congress was not satisfied, so an- 

other <• uittee was appointed emu 

posed of Messrs. Middlcton. Boudinot 
and Rutledge, and finally, on June 20, 
IT^U, the Greal Seal, as we now know, 
was adopted, it must be admitted that 
the heraldry is a little mixed, as might 
be supposed of the sturdy Americans 
who were far removed from the Heralds' 
College. A heraldic Interpretation is 
dry and uninteresting, but in brief the 

i about as follows: The Ameri 
can Eagle bears on his breast an es- 
cutcheon composed of thirteen bars, sup 
porting top, or a "chief," which is sup- 



tbe motto, "ANNUIT COEPTIB" (God 

lias favored the Undertaking). 

The origin of "E PLURIBUS VMM" 

is shrouded in mystery and is variously 
ascribed to Virgil and others. 

In the early days the Secretary of 
state was charged with a multitude 
<if duties, for under him till patents 
were issued: but in 1849, the work 
of the Patent Office was turned over 
to the Department of the Interior. 
Copyrights were also under the 
direction of the Secretary of State, 
but in 1850 it was transferred to 
another department The census en- 



' \£& ; >-"' i *J» 




182 



OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




RECORDS OF THE FIRST CENSUS OF 1780 MADE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 
ARE STILL IN EXISTENCE 



umeration was also under the charge 
df tin- Secretary of state in the 
early days. Certain matters relating 
tn pardons were also under his juris- 
diction, but in 1893 President Cleve- 
land transferred such work to the 
Department of Justice. In 1856 a 
law was passed providing that the 



Secretary of State should lie author- 
ized to grant and issue passports, 
and to cause thein to he granted and 
verified in foreign countries by dip- 
lomatic and consular officers, under 
such rules as the President mi?ht 
prescribe. 

What might be called the organic 



THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 



4S3 



law, indicating the duties of the Sec- 
retary of State, is comprised in Sec- 
tion 202 of the Revised Statutes, 
reading as follows : 

"The Secretary of State shall per- 
form such duties as shall from time to 
time be enjoined on or intrusted to him 
by the President relative to correspon- 
dences, commissions, or instructions to 
or with public ministers or consuls from 
the United States, or to negotiations 
with public ministers from foreign 
States or princes, or to memorials or 
other applications from foreign public 
ministers or other foreigners, or to such 
other matters respecting foreign affairs 
as the President of the United States 
shrll assign to the department, and ho 
sh-all conduct the business of the de 
partment in such manner as the Presi- 
dent shall direct: Provided, That the 
Secretary of State may prescribe duties 
for the Assistant Secretaries, the soli- 
citor, not interfering with his duties as 
an officer of the Department of Justice, 
and the clerks of bureaus, as well as 
for all the other employees in the de- 
partment, and may make changes and 
transfers therein when, in his judgment, 
it becomes necessary. (June 20, 1874, 
vol. 18. p. 90.)" 

By the act of February 3, 1887, 
the Secretary of State was charged 
with the duty of certifying to the 
two Houses of Congress, and with 
the publication in some newspaper, 
of the Presidential election returns. 

Among the other duties of the Sec- 
retary of State might be mentioned 
the communication and correspon- 
dence of the President with the gov- 
ernors of the States and the attesta- 
tion of all presidential proclama- 
tions, together with the publication 
of the laws and the Statutes at 
Large in the United States, em- 
bracing all acts of Congress, all 
proclamations issued by the Presi- 
dent, all treaties between the United 
States and foreign nations, includ- 
ing postal conventions, and all con- 
current resolutions of the two 
Houses of Congress. 

The compensation of the Secretary 
of State, under the act of September 
11, 1789, was $3,500; under the act 
of February 20, 1819, it was raised 
to $6,000: in 1853, increased to 
$8,000; and under the act of March 
4, 1911, increased to $12,000. 



In 1909 the question of reorganiza- 
tion was taken up, and it was found 
necessary to modernize and other- 
wise make for efficiency. This was 
caused by a number of reasons. The 
foreign trade of the country had 
been growing at an enormous extent. 
The people, endeavoring to market 
their manufactured products abroad, 
found themselves engaged in com- 
petition with the highly developed 
industries of England, France, Ger- 
many, and other countries; they 
were brought face to face, not only 
with the questions of tariffs and 
customs administration, but also 
with the need of that measure of 
diplomatic and consular support en- 
joyed by their competitors. 

The war with Spain had marked 
a new epoch in the history of Ameri- 
can foreign relations. The American 
people, after having been regarded 
for many years as a stay-at-home 
nation, absorbed in the development 
of their own resources, had sudden- 
ly been recognized to have assumed 
a new position among nations, so 
that it would be thenceforth impos- 
sible for this Government to escape 
the responsibilities of being one of 
the great forces in international af- 
fairs, and of taking a more promi- 
nent part in discussions and delib- 
erations concerning matters of in- 
ternational importance. 

Consequently the Department of 
State had been called upon to deal 
with a multitude of questions with 
which, before the Spanish war, it 
had not been concerned. The Hague 
ci inferences, the adjustment of boun- 
daries and other questions between 
the United States and Mexico and 
Canada, the arbitration of disputed 
questions with Canada and other 
nations, the negotiation of treaties 
to meet new conditions arising from 
the growth of the foreign interests 
of our people, the efforts of the 
United States to improve the condi- 
tions in Central America, the con- 
stantly increasing number of ques- 
tions arising from the development 
of Mexico, and the adjustment of 



4M 



<>r it corXTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 



difficulties and protection of the in- 
terests nf nearly 10,000 of our citi- 
zens who had temporarily taken up 
their residence and invested nearly 
$1,000,000,000 of American money in 
thai country, the reorganization and 
Improvement of the Diplomatic and 
Consular Services, and the increas- 
ing demand of the puhlic upon those 
organizations — all these things and 
others had thrown upon the Depart- 
ment of State a mass of correspond- 
ence and a great number of questions 
for determination or discussion en- 
tirely beyond its ability to treat 
efficiently with the then existing 
equipment. 

Every immigrant coming to this 
country, and every American going 
to a foreign country, increases, in 
one way or another, the possibility 
of work for the 1 department of State. 
The inadequacy of the force of the 
Department became critical, and a 
tentative reorganization of the De- 
partment upon modern lines, with a 
view to a maximum degree of effi- 
ciency, was then effected. 

The Secretary of State is peculiar- 
ly the adviser of the President, es- 
pecially those points involving broad 
questions of general policy, and the 
Secretary of state is also responsible 
for the conduct of foreign relations, 
and, in addition to the time required 
for the study of important diplomatic 
questions, he receives the represen- 
tatives of foreign governments for 
the discussion of diplomatic business 
and is in touch with matters affect- 
ing treaties with the Committee on 
Foreign Relations of the Senate. The 
Assistant Secretary, who receives a 
salary of $f>.<H><t a year, does not 
specialize, but must be prepared to 
be in close touch with all the larger 
questions of foreign policy, and re- 
lieve the Secretary, as far as pos- 
sible, of a portion of the general 
work. This is a very responsible 
position in the Department 

The Second Assistant Secretary is 
assigned to the detailed treatment 
by the departmental and diplomatic 
services of current diplomatic and 



political questions, except such spe- 
cial matters as may. from time to 
time, be assigned the Counselor. It is 
his duty to direct the activities of 
all the bureaus and divisions in re- 
spect to the diplomatic questions 
that are constantly arising all over 
the world, and to examine and ap- 
prove the correspondence in respect 
to such matters prepared for the 
signature of the Secretary or the 
Acting Secretary. His salary is $4,- 
500 a year. 

The administrative direction of 
the Diplomatic Service, as distin- 
guished from the treatment of sub- 
jects of international intercourse, is 
delegated to the Third Assistant 
Secretary of State, lie is responsi- 
ble for the maintenance, upkeep, and 
expenditures for that service. He 
also directs the treatment of all 
questions in relation to international 
congresses, conferences, commissions. 
expositions, and ceremonial matters. 
and has the supervision of the Di- 
vision of Western European Affairs. 
He is charged with the approval or 
disapproval of expenditures of pub- 
lic moneys in the department and 
the foreign service. His salary is 
$4,500 a year. 

The administration of the Con- 
sular Service and the direction of its 
activities in connection with the pro- 
motion and extension of our foreign 
commerce is delegated to the Direc- 
tor of the Consular Service, who has 
immediate control of expenditures 
for the maintenance of that organi- 
zation. He is also charged with 
the study and treatment of such 
special subjects as may. from time 
to time, be assigned to him by the 
Secretary and the Assistant Secre- 
tary of State. He also receives 
s 1,500 per annum. 

The Chief Clerk has the direction 
of the internal business of the de- 
partment, of the clerical force, the 
methods of transacting business, in- 
cluding the receipt and transmission 
of mail, the purchase of supplies, 
etc. His compensation is #3,000 a 
year. 



THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 



485 



Generally speaking, the questions 
of law, international or municipal, 
which may be involved in the de- 
termination of matters brought be- 
fore the department, are referred to 
the Solicitor's office. The result is, 
that the scope of the work coming 
before the office is very broad, in- 
cluding questions of constitutional 
law, admiralty law, criminal law, 
the law of torts, contracts, etc., and, 
of course, all branches and fields of 
international law. The more im- 
portant of the matters which actual- 
ly come before the office for determ- 
ination are as follows : 

Diplomatic claims 

International extraditions 

Citizenship, naturalization, expatria- 
tion, passports, etc. 

Extraterritoriality and the jurisdiction 
of ambassadors, ministers, or consular 
courts 

Neutrality, belligerency, contraband, 
asylum, etc. 

International arbitrations 

Distribution of awards 

There are also seven chiefs of 
bureaus as follows: 



Accounts and disbursing clerk 

Appointments 

Citizenship 

Consular 

Diplomatic 

Indexes and archives 

Rolls and library 

The affairs of the department are 
also handled by Chiefs of Divisions, 
for 

Far Eastern affairs 
Information 
Latin-American affairs 
Mexican affairs 
Near Eastern affairs 
Western European affairs 

There are also translators, as- 
sistant solicitors, law clerks, private 
and confidential secretaries, as well 
as dispatch agents in New York, 
San Francisco, New Orleans and 
London. 

In the Bureau of Rolls and Li- 
brary are contained some of the 
most valuable documents concern- 
ing our history, including the Declar- 
ation of Independence, Continental 
Congress records, and historical 
manuscripts of all kinds. 



OUR CONSULAR SERVICE 



FOR many years it has been the 
custom for Americans to ridi- 
cule the American Consular 
Service, holding up to scorn the 
comic opera creation who held the 
center of the stage with his palm- 
leaf fan and slow drawl as the pro- 
totype of a consular officer. In the 
distant past there may have been 
an occasional officer who lived down 
to this popular conception, but it is 
so no longer. 

The modern Consular Service had 
its inception in the days of Grover 
Cleveland, although it was Theodore 
Roosevelt who put it upon its pres- 
ent firm, non-political and non-par- 
tisan basis, with merit and merit 
only as the cause for advancement. 
Since then it has grown in efficiency 
and size until to-day it is unrivaled. 
In the past good results from the 
Consular Service were infrequent 



because of the method of appoint- 
ment of consular officers without re- 
gard to their particular fitness for 
the places to which they were sent, 
or as the former Secretary of State, 
Mr. Root, expressed it, "The placing 
of round pegs in square holes." 
Since 1S96, when the first order pro- 
viding for an examination before 
appointment went into effect, the 
Service has been strengthened and 
improved until those who knew it 
in the old days can no longer recog- 
nize it. 

Men who pass an examination for 
a Consular position to-day have to 
know a variety of things and know 
them well. Examinations are both 
oral and written, the two counting 
equally. The oral examination de- 
termines the candidate's business 
ability, alertness, general contem- 
porary information, and natural fit' 



4S6 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



In CONGRESS. Jvn *. , f7 t. 



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(UK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



ness for the service, including moral, 
mental and physical qualifications, 
character, address and general edu- 
catiou and good command of Eng- 
lish. The written examination in- 
cludes French, German or Spanish; 
the natural, industrial and commer- 
cial resources and the commerce of 
the United states, especially with 
reference to possibilities <>f increas- 
ing and extending the foreign trade 
of the United States; political econ- 
omy and the elements of interna- 
tional, commercial and maritime 
law. American history, government 
and institutions; political and com- 
mercial geography; arithmetic (as 
used in commercial statistics, tariff 
calculations, exchange, accounts, 
etc. i ; the modern history, since 
1850, of Europe, Latin-America and 
the Far East, with particular atten- 
tion to political, commercial and eco 
nomic tendencies. 

After passing a stiff examination 
and getting an appointment, young 
consular officers go to school in 
Washington, at a "model consulate" 
in the Consular Bureau at the state 
Department. Every newly appointed 
consul is required to proceed to 
Washington and spend at least thirty 
days in this school learning just 
what he will he expected to do when 
he reaches his post, anil how he may 
get the best results from whatever 
conditions confront him. Although 
this special form of training has 
been in force hut a comparatively 
short time it is showing its good 
effect by the improvement in the 
work and reports of the consular 
officers, and by the attitude of 
appreciation and understanding of 
their duties which the consuls dis- 
play as a result of the instructions. 

A consular officer has no duty of 
greater importance than that of 
service to his countrymen. The 
splendid service rendered hy United 
States consular officers in the field 
of the great war now raging is well 
known, and none of the unfortunates 
who \\ ere helped in Berlin, London, 
Paris and Belgium hy our Consuls 
General, consuls and consular agents 



will ever forget the service they 
received. Some of the accompany- 
ing pictures show how great was the 
pressure on the consulates of the 
great neutral nation in the countries 
at war. where citizens of the enemy 
clamored for help, relief, passports, 
and the hundred and one things that 
only a trained, hard working and 
disinterested staff could do. 

Important as such services are, 
they are. luckily, not often required. 
.\dr is the gathering and transmit- 
tal of commercial information, im- 
portant though that duty is. the 
whole work of a consular officer. 
Only when reading a list of his 
duties is it easy to comprehend why 
those who till such positions must 
he highly educated and alert men. 

For instance, a consular officer 
must maintain and promote all in- 
terests of American citizens. lie 
is required to protect them in all 
privileges provided hy treaty or con- 
ceded hy usage; to vis6 and. when 
so authorized, to issue passports; 
when permitted hy treaty, law or 
usage, to take charge of and settle 
the personal estates of Americans 
who may die abroad, without legal 
or other representatives, and remit 
the proceeds to the Treasury in case 
they are not called for by a legal 
representative within one year; to 
ship, discharge, and. under certain 
conditions, maintain and send Amer- 
ican seamen to the United States; 
to settle disputes between masters 
and seamen of American vessels; to 
investigate charges of mutiny or In- 
subordination on the high seas and 
send mutineers to the United States 
for trial; to render assistance in the 
case of wrecked or stranded Amer- 
ican vessels, and, in the ahsence of 
the master or other qualified per- 
son, take charge of the wrecks and 
cargoes, if permitted to do so hy the 
laws of the Country; to receive the 
papers of American vessels arriving 
at foreign ports and deliver them 
after the discharge of the ohliga- 
tions of the vessels toward the mem- 
hers of their crews, and upon the 
production of clearances from the 



490 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS UKSOI'RCES 



proper foreign port officials; to cer- 
tify to the correctness of the valua- 
tion iif merchandise exported to the 

United States where the shipment 
amounts to more than $100; to acl 
as otlieial witnesses to marriages of 
American citizens abroad; to aid in 
the enforcement of the immigration 
laws, and to certify to the correct- 
ness of the certilicates issued by 
Chinese and other officials to Chi- 
nese persons coining to the United 
States; to protect the health of our 
seaports by reporting weekly the 
sanitary and health conditions of 
the port at which he resides, and 
by issuing to vessels clearing for the 
United States hills of health describ- 
ing the condition of the ports, the 
vessels, crews, passengers and car- 
goes; and to take depositions and 
perform other acts which public 
notaries in the United States are 
authorized or required to perform. 

In addition to the foregoing du- 
ties, consular officers in China. Tur- 
key. Siani. Muskat, Morocco, and a 
few other so-called non-Christian 
countries, are invested with judicial 
powers over American citizens in 
those countries. These powers are 
usually defined by treaty, but gen- 
erally include the trial of civil cases 
to which Americans are parties, and 
in some instances extend to the trial 
of criminal cases. 

The service now employs about 
l.Too people. The principal officers 
and their compensations are as 
follows: 

Consuls General 

Consul General of Class l $12,000 

Consul General of class 2 8,000 

Consul General of Class :: 6,000 

Consul General of class 4 5,500 

Consul General ><( class r, 4.r»00 

Consuls 

Consul of Class 1 .$s.(illll 

Consul of Class 2 6,000 

Consul of class :; 5,000 

Consul of Class 4 4.500 

Consul of Class 5 4.000 

Consul of Class 6 3,500 

Consul of Class 7 ."..000 

Consul of Class s 2,. r .00 

Consul of Class <> 2,000 

At present there are 241 consuls 
in the nine classes. 



The consular officer in London. 
Paris or Berlin lives a busy, active 

and civilized life. The consular of- 
ficer in some small place in a semi- 
civilized country may have little to 
do and no amusement. But in either 
event he is a willing servant of his 
country and doing for it a work 
beyond computation in price, al- 
though it is a fact that fees col- 
lected for the multitudinous serv- 
ices he renders almost equal the cost 
of the service. 

All fees received by any officer in 
the consular service for services ren- 
dered in connection with the duties 
of his office or as a consular officer. 
including fees for notarial services, 
and fees for taking depositions, exe- 
cuting commissions or letters roga- 
tory, settling estates, receiving or 
] laying out moneys, caring for or 
disposing of property, are paid into 
the Treasury of the United States. 
The only compensation of officers is 
their salaries, except in the case of 
consular agents. Consular agents 
are paid one half of the fees re- 
ceived in their offices, up to a maxi- 
mum sum of one thousand dollars 
in any one year, the other half being 
paid into the Treasury. 

The fees collected do not nearly 
equal the expenditures of the serv- 
ice. Fees for a deposition may run 
to $100, depending on its Lengti* 

The illustrations on page 481 show- 
two types of consulates in far conn 
tries — the handsome residence at 
Cairo, Egypt, contrasted with the 
mud-roof dwelling ill far off Tur- 
key. But the type of dwelling makes 
little difference to its occupant — he 
is there to serve, to open the mar- 
kets of his country to American 
manufacturers, and to serve Amer- 
icans in need or in distress. In- 
deed, he does more than serve his 
own countrymen — not Infrequently 
he serves the merchants of the coun- 
try to which he is sent. 

The Consular Reports — public 
documents published from the let- 
ters sent in to the Consular Bureau 
of the State Department — contain 
vital information regarding trade 



THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 



491 



conditions in all countries. How 
valuable these are was well brought 
out recently in a published inter- 
view with the president of the Shef- 
field (England) Chamber of Com- 
merce. It seems that certain Shef- 
field manufacturers had sudden need 
to know the sources and distribution 
throughout the world of wolfram 
ore, from which tungsten, essential 
in the manufacture of high-resist- 
ance steel for guns and armor, is 
made. The president of the Cham- 
ber of Commerce was unable to 
locate the information he desired 
from British sources. In his inter- 
view he said : 

"It was suggested tbat I would find 
it in the reports of American consuls. 
I did find it there. I discovered where 
wolfram was produced ; the quality, 
state of the trade and amount avail- 
able. That information assisted ma- 
terially in bringing about the manufac- 
ture of tungsten powder in this country, 
which, although started during the war, 
has been a magnificent success and will 
be a great success after the war." 

The Director of the Consular 
Service, Mr. Wilbur J. Carr. who 
has risen from the ranks in his 



twenty years of service, called at- 
tention recently to a unique feature 
of America's system, which is one 
reason why it is so efficient. This 
is the system of inspection. Speak- 
ing of it, Mr. Carr said : 

"In this field we have been pioneers. 
The law of 190G created five so-called 
consul generals at large. Each travels 
over a grand division of the world, in- 
specting each consular office once every 
two years. The Department of State 
is enabled by this means not only to 
detect and rectify irregularities in the 
work of individual consuls, but to en- 
force uniformity of method and organ- 
ization. If a consular officer in a far- 
off corner of the globe, by inspiration or 
careful thought evolves an improved 
method of performing some routine duty 
or discovers a new and effective way 
by which the foreign trade of the United 
States may be promoted, this is discov- 
ered by the inspector on his next visit 
and if' found good in every way, com- 
municated to the Department of State, 
and by it to the other consuls at large, 
with the result that all which is best in 
individual offices and in the practices 
of individual officers becomes eventually 
the common property of the service. 
Other governments recognize the prac- 
tical value of this inspection system. 
Great Britain has undertaken something 
analogous in a tentative way and the 
French foreign office has a like project 
under consideration." 



OFFICIAL DUTIES 



SECRETARY OF STATE 

The Secretary of State is charged, 
under the direction of the President, 
with the duties appertaining to corre- 
spondence with the public ministers and 
the consuls of the United States, and 
with the representatives of foreign pow- 
ers accredited to the United States ; and 
to negotiations of whatever character 
relating to the foreign affairs of the 
United States. He is also the medium 
of correspondence between the President 
and the chief executives of the several 
States of the United States ; he has the 
custody of the Great Seal of the United 
States, and countersigns and affixes such 
seal to all Executive proclamations, to 
various commissions, and to warrants 
for the extradition of fugitives from 
justice. He is regarded as the first in 
rank among the members of the Cabinet. 
He is also the custodian of the treaties 
made with foreign states, and of the 
laws of the United States. He grants 
and issues passports, and exequaturs to 
foreign consuls in the United States are 
issued through his office. He publishes 
the laws and resolutions of Congress, 



amendments to the Constitution, and 
proclamations declaring the admission of 
new States into the Union. 
COUNSELOR 

The Counselor becomes the Acting 
Secretary of State in the absence of the 
Secretarv. He is charged with the su- 
pervision of such matters and the prep- 
aration of such correspondence as may 
be assigned to him by the Secretary. 

ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE 

Under the organization of the depart- 
ment the Assistant Secretary, Second 
Assistant Secretary and Third Assistant 
Secretary are charged with the super- 
vision of all correspondence with the 
diplomatic and consular officers, and are 
intrusted with the preparation of the 
correspondence upon any questions aris- 
ing in the course of the public business 
that may be assigned to them by the 
Secretary. 
DIRECTOR OF THE CONSULAR SERVICE 

The Director of the Consular Service 
is charged with the general supervision 
of the Consular Service and such other 



492 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



duties as may be assigned to him from 
time to time by the Secretary. 

C II IFF CLERK 

The Chief clerk lias general super- 
vision of the clerks and employees and 
of departmental matters-, charge <>f the 
property of the department. 

FOREIGN TRADE ADVISER 

General supervision of foreign trailo 
matters; diplomatic and consular corre- 
spondence and miscellaneous correspond- 
ence relating thereto. 

DIPLOMATIC BUREAU 

Diplomatic correspondence and miscel- 
laneous correspondence relating thereto. 

DIVISION OF LATIN-AMERICAN AFFAIRS 

Diplomatic and consular correspond- 
ence, "ii matters ether than these of au 
administrative character, ill relation to 
Central America. Panama, South Amer- 
ica and the West Indies. 

DIVISION OF MEXICAN AFFAIRS 

Diplomatic and consular correspond- 
ence, on matters ether than these of an 
administrative character, in relation to 
.Mexico. 

DIVISION OF FAR EASTERN AFFAIRS 

Diplomatic and consular correspond- 
ence, on matters other than those of an 
administrative character, in relation to 
Japan, China, and leased territories, 
Siberia. Hong-kong, French [ndo-Cbina, 
Siam, straits Settlements. Borneo, Bast 
Indies, India, and in general the Far 
East. 
DIVISION OF NEAR EASTERN AFFAIRS 

Diplomatic and consular correspond- 
ence, on matters other than those of an 
administrative character, in relation to 
Germany, Austria Hungary, Russia, Rou- 
mania, Servia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, 
Turkey. Greece, Italy, Abyssinia, Persia, 
Egypt, and colonies belonging to coun- 
tries of this series. 

DIVISION OF WESTERN EUROPEAN 

A F FA IKS 

Diplomatic and consular correspond- 
ence, on matters other than those of an 
administrative character, in relation to 
Greal Britain (Canada, Australia, New 
Zealand, and British colonies qoI else- 
where enumerated i . Portugal, Spain. 
France, Morocco. Belgium, the Kongo, 
Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, the Neth- 
erlands, Luxe m b ii r g, 1 »enmark and 
Liberia. 

CONSULAR m "i:i- m 

Consular correspondence and miscel- 
laneous correspondence relating thereto, 
and administrative matters relating to 
the consular service. 



BUREAU OF APPOINTMENTS 

Custody of the Great Seal and appli- 
cations for office, and the preparation 
of commissions, exequaturs, warrants of 
extradition, Departmental Register, dip- 
lomatic and consular lists and consular 
bonds : correspondence and other matters 
regarding entrance examinations for the 
foreign service. 

BUREAU OF CITIZENSHIP 

Examination of applications for pass- 
port-, issuance of pas-ports and authen- 
tications: receiving and filing duplicates 
of evidence, registration, etc., under act 
of March 'J. 1907, in reference to ex- 
patriation of citizens and their protec- 
tion abroad: keeping of necessary rec- 
ords thereunder: conduct of correspond- 
ence in relation to the foregoing. 

BUREAU OF INDEXES AND ARCHIVES 

Recording and indexing the general 
correspondence of the department; 
charge of the archives. 

BUREAU OF ACCOUNTS 

Custody and disbursement of appro- 
priations and indemnity funds, and cor- 
respondence relating thereto. 

BUREAU OF ROLLS AND LIBRARY 
Custody of the rolls, treaties, etc.; 
promulgation of the laws, treaties, Ex- 
ecutive orders and proclamations; care 
and superintendence of the library and 
public documents: care of papers relat- 
ing to international commissions. 

DIVISION OF INFORMATION 

The preparation and distribution to 
the foreign service of diplomatic, com- 
mercial and other correspondence and 
documents important to their informa- 
tion upon foreign relations: editing 
"Foreign Relations" of the United States. 

OFFICE OF THE LAW CLERK 

Editing and indexing the laws, resolu- 
tions, public treaties and proclamations 
for publication in the Statutes at Large. 

SUPERINTENDENT OF BUILDING 
The superintendent of the State. War 
and Navy Department Building is the 
executive officer of the commission 

created by Congress, consisting of the 
Secretaries of State. War and Navy, for 
the government of this building. He has 
charge of. care, preservation, repairing, 
warming, ventilating, lighting and clean- 
ing of the building, grounds and ap- 
proaches, and disburses the special ap- 
propriations for this purpose: he has 
charge of all the employees of the build- 
ing proper, and appoints them by direc- 
tion of the Secretaries, 



CHAPTER VT. 



DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 



SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 




nr 


^HE 


Secre- 


1 


tary 


of 


the 




Treasury 


is 


charged 


by 


law 


with 


the 


manage- 


meat 


of 


the 


na- 


tional 


finances. 



lie prepares plans 
for the improve- 
ment of the reven- 
ue and for the support of the public 
credit ; superintends the collection of 



the revenue, and directs the forms of 
keeping and rendering public ac- 
counts and of making returns ; 
grants warrants for all moneys 
drawn from the Treasury in pur- 
suance of appropriations made by 
law, and for the payment of moneys 
into the Treasury ; and annually 
submits to Congress estimates of the 
probable revenues and disburse- 
ments of the Government. He con- 
trols the construction and niain- 




THE TREASURY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. 
Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



I'.U 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



tenance of public buildings, the 
coinage and printing of money, the 
administration of the Coast Guard 
and flic Public Health branches of 
the public service. He is ex-officio 
chairman of the Federal Reserve 
Board created by act approved De- 
cember 23, 1913, known as the 
•'Federal Reserve Act." 

There are three Assistant Secre- 
taries in charge of the bureaus and 
divisions of the Treasury Depart- 
ment. One has charge of Public 
Health Service, Supervising Archi- 
tect's Office, the selection of sites for 
public buildings, Coast Guard, Ap- 
pointment Division, General Supply 
Committee, Section of Surety Bonds 
and all unassigned business of the 
Department. 

To the Assistant Secretary in 
charge of fiscal bureaus is assigned 
general supervision of all matters 
relating to the Office of the Comp- 



troller of the Currency, the Office 
of the Treasurer of the United 
States, the Bureau of Internal Reve- 
nue, the Bureau of the Mint, the 
Office of the Comptroller of the 
Treasury, the Auditors of the sev- 
eral departments, the Register of 
the Treasury, the Bureau of En- 
graving and Printing, the Division 
of Bookkeeping and Warrants, the 
Division of Loans and Currency, the 
Division of Mail and Files, the Divi- 
sion of Printing and Stationery, the 
Division of Public Moneys, the Se- 
cret-Service Division, the Federal 
Farm Loan Board, and the Office <>f 
the Disbursing Clerk. 

To the Assistant Secretary in 
charge of customs is assigned the 
general supervision of the Division 
of Customs, of all matters pertain- 
ing to the Customs Service, and the 
Bureau of War-Risk Insurance, as 
referred to later on. 



CHIEF CLERK 



The chief clerk is the chief ex- 
ecutive officer of the Secretary, and, 
under the direction of the Secretary 
and Assistant Secretaries, is charged 
with the enforcement of depart- 
mental regulations general in their 
nature: is by law superintendent of 
the Treasury Building and other re- 
lated buildings and rolling stock 
belonging to the department: the 
direction of engineers, watchmen, 
firemen, etc., connected with the 
maintenance and protection of the 
Treasury buildings, etc. : the ex- 
penditure of appropriations for con- 
tingent expenses; the administrative 



control of appropriations made for 
Government exhibits at various ex- 
positions; the supervision and gen- 
eral administration of the General 
Supply Committee; handles offers in 
compromise cases; the custody of 
the records, files and library of the 
Secretary's office: the custody of all 
sites for proposed buildings in 
Washington; the checking of all 
mail relating to the personnel of the 
Treasury Department; the handling 
of requests for certified copies of 
official papers, and the charge of all 

business of the Secretary's office 
which is not otherwise assigned. 



COMPTROLLER OF THE CURRENCY 



The Comptroller of the Currency 
is the chief officer of that bureau of 
the Treasury Department which is 
charged with the execution of all 
laws passed by Congress relating to 
the issue and regulation of the na- 
tional currency, generally known as 
national bank notes, secured by 
United States bonds: and under the 
supervision ,,f the Federal Reserve 
Board is also in charge of the issue 



of circulating notes to Federal Re- 
serve banks. 

In addition to these powers the 
Comptroller exercises general super- 
vision over all national banks 
throughout the United states, in- 
cluding Alaska and Hawaii, in the 
matter of their organization and 
regulation. He is vested with the 
power to appoint receivers and to 
enforce penalties prescribed for 



DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 



495 




SEPARATING CHARRED BANK BILLS 



violations of the national bank act. 
Under the Federal Reserve act he 
executed and issued the certificates 
or charters for the Federal Reserve 
banks. The Comptroller of the Cur- 
rency is ex officio a member of the 
Federal Reserve Board. 

Reports of condition of all na- 
tional banks are made to the Comp- 
troller not less frequently than five 
times a year, by the banks, and also 



periodically by the national bank 
examiners appointed by him. 

His powers are exercised under 
the general supervision of the Sec- 
retary of the Treasury, but under 
the law his annual report is made 
direct to Congress ; all other bureaus 
of the Treasury Department report 
to Congress through the Secretary 
of the Treasury, and these reports 
are printed. 



TREASURER OF THE UNITED STATES 



The Treasurer of the United 
States receives and keeps the 
moneys of the United States and 
disburses the same upon war- 
rants drawn by the Secretary of the 
Treasury, countersigned by the 
Comptroller of the Treasury, and not 
otherwise. He takes receipts for all 
moneys paid by him and gives re- 
ceipts for all moneys received, and 
all receipts for moneys received by 
him shall be endorsed upon warrants 
signed by the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, without which warrant so 
signed, no acknowledgment for 



money received into the public 
Treasury shall be valid. He renders 
his accounts to the Comptroller of 
the Treasury quarterly, or oftener if 
required, and transmits copies there- 
of, when settled, to the Secretary of 
the Treasury- The moneys in his 
hands are at all times subject to the 
inspection of the Secretary of the 
Treasury and the Comptroller of the 
Treasury. The Treasurer makes a 
report to the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury every 30th of Juno, showing 
the condition of all of the several 
accounts. 



4l)6 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



COMMISSIONER OF 

The Commissioner of Internal 
Revenue has general superintend- 
ence of the collection of all in- 
ternal-revenue taxes, the enforce- 
ment of internal-revenue laws, ap- 
pointment of internal-revenue em- 



INTERNAL REVENUE 

ployees, compensation and duties of 
gaugers, storekeepers and other 
subordinate officers; the preparation 
and distribution of stamps, instruc- 
tions, regulations, forms, blanks, 
hydrometers, stationery, etc. 




TESTING ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS 



DIRECTOR ()!■' THE MINT' 



Five coinage mints have been 
established in different sections 
of the country, of which two. 
located at New Orleans. La., and 
Carson City, New, now operate only 
as Assay Offices. The Mints now 
engaged in coinage operations arc 
located at Philadelphia, San Fran- 
cisco and Denver, that at Phila- 
delphia being the largest In addi- 
tion to the Assay Offices Located at 



New Orleans, La., and Carson City, 
New, the Government maintains six 
others, located at New York City, 
Seattle. Wash.: Deadwood, s. D.; 
Boise, Idaho: Salt Lake City, T'tah, 
and Helena. Montana. 

Th • headquarters of the Mint Ser- 
vice are in the Treasury I >epartment, 
Washington, I>. C. known as the 
Bureau of the Mint. This consists 
of the office of the I ►irector of the 



•The subjeel of tin- assay of coins, bullion, etc.. and tin- minting of money 
forms an interesting chapter in the Brat part of this i k. (Pages 309 t<> 320.) 



DEPAKTMKNT < >F THE TKKASFRY 



407 



Mint, an assay laboratory for the 
purpose of testing the weight and 
fineness of the coins made at the 
several mints, and a clerical force 
which, under the Director of the 
Mint, reviews the accounts of the 
various institutions, prepares for 
publication, quarterly, an estimate 
of the value of the standard coins 
of foreign countries for custom 
house and other public purposes. 
and works up the statistical data 
for the annual report of the 
Director on the operations of the 
Mint Service for the fiscal year, 
including also statistics of the pro- 
duction of precious metals in the 
United States and the world for the 
calendar year. 



ceipts of the precious metals to the 
Mints to be coined. Much of the 
metal is not suitable for immediate 
coinage, and refineries are main- 
tained at the Mints at San Fran- 
cisco and Denver and the Assay 
Office at New York City to purify 
the metal. Such of it as may be 
needed for coinage is then alloyed 
with copper, the proportions being 
nine parts of gold or silver to one 
part of copper, making what is 
known as 900 fine or "standard" 
metal, which has been found most 
suitable for coins, the pure gold or 
silver being comparatively soft, and 
subject to appreciable abrasion or 
wear. Minor coins are manufactur- 
ed from nickel and bronze, the 




MONEY OF ALL KINDS IS TRANSPORTED IN HEAVILY GUARDED TRUCKS 



The Mints and Assay Offices have 
been established in localities suit- 
able for the convenient acquisition 
of gold and silver by the Government 
for the purpose of coinage. Gold 
and silver bullion is received and 
paid for at its exact valuation (the 
price of gold remaining stationary, 
while that of silver fluctuates) and 
the Assay Offices forward their re- 



stocks of the necessary metals being 
bought in the open market as re- 
quired. 

As the stock of gold in the coun- 
try has accumulated far beyond the 
needs for that metal as a circulating 
medium, it has been found most con- 
venient and economical, after filling 
the yearly demands for new gold 
coin, to melt the balance of this 



408 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



precious metal into bars of uniform 
and convenient size, to be stored 
in the vaults of the mints and held 
as a reserve against which gold cer- 
tificates may be issued. 

New coin usually gets into cir- 
culation through the Disbursing Of- 
fice of the Treasury Department and 
hanking institutions in exchange for 
the larger denominations of money. 

The mints manufacture not only 
all of the domestic coin, but also 



the coinage for the Philippine Isl- 
ands and. as their business permits, 
such of the coinage of adjacent coun- 
tries as it is found expedient and 
practicable to handle. 

At the Philadelphia Mint there is 
maintained a complete engraving 
and medal-making establishment, 
where are manufactured all dies 
used in the domestic and Philip- 
pine coinage, and also dies and med- 
als of a national character. 



COMPTROLLER OP TIIK TREASIRY 



The Comptroller of the Treasury, 
under the direction of the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury, prescribes the 
forms of keeping and rendering all 
public accounts except those relat- 
ing to postal revenues and the ex- 
penditures therefrom. He is charged 
with the duty of revising accounts 
upon appeal from settlements made 
by the auditors. Upon the applica- 
tion of disbursing officers, the head 
of any executive department, or 
other independent establishment' not 
under any of the executive depart- 
ments, the Comptroller is required to 
render bis advance decision upon 
any question involving a payment 
1o be made by them or under them, 
which decision, when rendered, gov- 
erns the auditor and the Comptrol- 
ler in the settlement of the account 
involving the payment inquired 
about. He is required to approve, 
disapprove, or modify all decisions 
by auditors making an original con- 
struction or modifying an existing 
construction of statutes, and certify 
his action to the auditor whose du- 
ties are affected thereby. Under his 
direction the several auditors super- 
intend the recovery of all debts 

finally certified by them, respect- 
ively, to be due the United States, 

except those arising under the Post 
Office Department. He superin- 
tends the preservation by the 
auditors of all accounts which have 
been finally adjusted by them, to- 
gether with the vouchers and certifi- 
cates relating to the same. He is 



required, on his own motion, when 
in the interests of the Government, 
to revise any account settled by any 
auditor. In any case where, in his 
opinion, the interests of the Govern- 
ment require, he may direct any of 




PORTICO OF THE TREASURY 

the auditors forthwith to audit and 
settle any particular account pend- 
ing before the said auditor for set- 
tlement. It is his duty to counter- 
sign all warrants authorized by law 
to be signed by the Secretary of the 
Treasury. 



DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 



499 



REGISTER OP THE TREASURY 



The Register of the Treasury signs 
all bonds of the United States, the 
bonds of the District of Columbia, 
the Philippine Islands, the city of 
Manila, the city of Cebu, and the 
Porto Rican gold loans, and keeps 
records showing the daily outstand- 
ing balances thereof. He certifies 
to the Treasurer of the United 
States, the Auditor for the Treas- 
ury, and the Loans and Currency 
Division, Secretary's Office, the in- 



terest due on United States loans 
at interest periods ; also gives an 
administrative examination to paid 
interest checks received from the 
Treasurer, and transmits the same 
to the Auditor for the Treasury. He 
examines and records all paid inter- 
est coupons and all other United 
States securities redeemed, and keeps 
records of the outstanding principal 
and interest of the bonded indebted 
ness of the Government. 




$500,000 IN NOTES ON A TRUCK 



BUREAU OF ENGRAVI 

The Bureau of Engraving and 
Printing designs, engraves, prints 
and finishes all of the securities and 
other similar work of the Govern- 
ment, embracing United States 
notes, bonds, and certificates, Na- 
tional Bank notes. Federal Reserve 
notes, internal-revenue, postage and 
customs stamps, Treasury drafts 



NG AND PRINTING* 
and checks. disbursing officers' 
checks, licenses, commissions, patent 
and pension certificates, and por- 
traits authorized by law of deceased 
Members of Congress and other pub- 
lic officers ; also all postage stamps 
and all securities issued by the Bu- 
reau of Insular Affairs to our insular 
possessions. 



*A special chapter by Director Ralph will be found in the first part of 
this book and is filled with interesting facts and pictures. (See pages 299 to 307.) 



r,m 



OUB COUNTRY AND [TS RESOURCES 



THE UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE 
By RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon-General 




T 



II E United 
states Pub- 
lie Health 

S c i- v i c e w a s 
created as the 
United States 

Marine Hospital 
Service by the act 
approved July 16, 
17ux. It contin- 
ued as the United 
Slates Marine Hospital Service until 
July 1. 1902, when Congress changed 
the name to that of the Public Health 
and Marine Hospital Service of the 
United states. The act approved 
August 14. 1912, further changed the 
name of the Service to that of the 
Public Health Service, and greatly 
increased its powers and functions. 
As originally created the I nit <1 
States Marine Hospital Service had 
for its function the medical and 
surgical relief of the sick and in- 
jured seamen of the merchant mar- 
ine and the Navy. The organic act 
placed the Marine Hospital Service 
in the Treasury Department, where 
it has continued to remain as a 
bureau'. The organic act was amend- 
ed by the acts of March 2. 1709. 
May 5, 1802, February 2G. 1811, ami 
July 2!>, Isto. As at present organ- 
ized the Bureau of the Public Health 
Service is situated at Washington, 
D. C. and comprises seven divisions, 
the operations of which are co-ordi- 
nated and each under the immediate 
supervision of the Surgeon General. 
An Assistant Surgeon General is in 
charge of each of these divisions, ex- 
cepting the miscellaneous division. 

Through the Division of Marine 
Hospitals and Relief professional 
care is taken of sick and disabled 
seamen at twenty-two marine hospi- 
tals and one hundred and twenty- 
three other relief stations. The bene- 
ficiaries include officers and crews of 
registered, enrolled, or licensed ves- 
sels of the United States and <>f the 
Coast Guard and Lighthouse Ser- 



vice; seamen employed on vessels 
of the Mississippi River Commission, 
and of the Engineer Corps of the 
Army; keepers and surfmen of the 
Coast Guard. A purveying depot for 
the purchase' and issuance of sup- 
plies is maintained at Washington. 
Physical examinations of officers and 
seamen and keepers and surfmen of 
the ('oast Guard and the examina- 
tions for the detection of color- 
blindness in masters, mates, and 
pilots are conducted through this di- 
vision, and the medical evidence of 
disability in claims for benefits 
against the Coast Guard are re- 
viewed. 

Through the Division of Domestic 
(Interstate) Quarantine is enforced 
Section 3 of the act of February 15. 
1^9.°>, relating to the prevention of 
the spread of contagious or infec- 
tious diseases from one State or 
Territory into another. The control 
of the interstate spread of disease 
is effected by the Interstate Quar- 
antine Regulations, compiled by this 
division. These regulations prohibit 
the carrying of persons afflicted with 
contagious diseases by interstate 
carriers and provide the conditions 
under which certain other infected 
persons may he transported. They 
provide that the vehicles of these 
carriers he maintained in a sani- 
tary condition and that water fur- 
nished thereon shall conform to 
the bacteriological standard for 
drinking water supplied to the 
public by common carriers in in- 
terstate traffic as adopted by the 
Treasury Department on October 21. 
1914. For the enforcement and ad- 
ministration of these regulations the 
country has been divided into twelve 
Interstate Sanitary Districts, each 
under the direction of this division. 
Laboratories have been established 
at central cities in these districts 
and an officer of the Public Health 
Service placed in each. The educa- 
tion of the general public in hygiene 



DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 



501 



and sanitation is conducted by the 
Domestic Quarantine Division by 
means of lectures, the loan of stere- 
opticon slides to physicians, welfare 
workers, educators, etc., by exhibits, 
such as at the Panama Pacific In- 
ternational Exposition and on the 
Government Safety First Train, and 
by press items issued to about 8,000 
newspapers. Sanitary and relief 
work in Alaska, hospitals and sani- 
tary work at international exposi- 



ing thereto. He has control of fifty- 
five Federal quarantine stations in 
the United States, and others in the 
Philippines, Hawaii, and Porto Rico, 
and supervises the medical officers 
detailed in the offices of the Ameri- 
can consular officers at foreign ports 
to prevent the introduction of con- 
tagious or infectious diseases into 
the United States. Under section 
17 of the act approved February 20, 
1907, he has supervision over the 




EXAMINING AN ALIEN AT ELLIS ISLAND BY MENTAL TESTS 



tions. inspection of Government 
buildings for sanitary defects, and 
the important duty of the suppres- 
sion of epidemics come within the 
scope of this division. 

Through the Division of Foreign 
and Insular Quarantine and Immi- 
gration the Surgeon General en- 
forces the national quarantine laws 
and prepares the regulations relat- 



medical officers engaged in the physi- 
cal and mental examinations of all 
arriving aliens. 

In the Division of Personnel and 
Accounts are kept the records of the 
officers and of the expenditures of 
the appropriations. 

The Division of Sanitary Reports 
and Statistics collects and publishes 
information regarding the prevalence 



502 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



and geographic distribution of dis- 
eases dangerous to the public health 
in the United States and foreign 
countries. Court decisions, laws, 
regulations, and ordinances pertain- 
ing to the public health are compiled, 
digested and published. Its publi- 
cations contain articles on subjects 
relating to the public health. This 
division issues the Public Health Re- 
ports (weekly) and Supplements to, 
and Reprints from, the Public 
Health Reports. 

The Division of Scientific Re- 
search conducts the scientific investi- 
gations of the service. Intensive 
studies of diseases of man, including 
hookworm diseases, malaria, pel- 
lagra, trachoma, typhoid fever, and 
tuberculosis, of school, mental, and 
industrial hygiene, of rural sanita- 
tion, of public health administration, 
of water supplies and sewage, and 
of coastal waters are carried on 
from special headquarters in the 
field in co-operation with State and 
local health authorities. Technical 
and purely laboratory studies are 
conducted at the Hygienic Labora- 
tory in Washington, at special field 
laboratories, and at the leprosy in- 
vestigation station in Hawaii. In- 
formation thus obtained is dissem- 
inated through publications, cor- 
respondence, lectures, and confer- 



ences with health authorities con- 
cerning the results of field studies 
in their jurisdictions. Through the 
division the department enforces the 
act of July 1, 1902, "to regulate the 
sale of viruses, serums, etc." The 
Surgeon General is required by law 
to call an annual conference of 
State and territorial health author- 
ities, and special conferences may 
also be called at any time. For ad- 
vice in respect to scientific investi- 
gations he may convene the advisory 
board of the Hygienic Laboratory. 

Through the Miscellaneous Di- 
vision the various service publica- 
tions are issued, including the an- 
nual reports, public health reports, 
supplements, and reprints, public 
health bulletins of the Hygiene Lab- 
oratory, and miscellaneous publica- 
tions on health topics. 

The commissioned corps of the 
United States Public Health Service 
on July 1, 191 G, consisted of the Sur- 
geon General, 6 Assistant Surgeon 
Generals, 1 Assistant Surgeon Gen- 
eral at large, 13 senior surgeons, 
72 surgeons. 37 passed assistant sur- 
geons, and 70 assistant surgeons. In 
addition there are scientific assist- 
ants, consisting of acting assistant 
surgeons, epidemiologists, internes 
at marine hospitals, pharmacists, 
etc. 



UNITED STATES COAST GUARD* 
By Captain Commandant K. P. Beiitholf 



The Captain Commandant of 
the Coast Guard is charged by 
law with the administration of the 
Coasl Guard, under the direction 
of the Secretary of the Treasury. 
Headquarters are located at the 
Treasury Department. The act of 
January 28, 1915, provided that the 
Coast Guard be created in lieu of 
the then existing Kevenue-Cutter 
Service and the Life-Saving Service, 
and to be composed of those two 
organizations. It also provided that 
it shall constitute a part of the mili- 



tary forces of the United States, 
and shall operate tinder the Treas- 
ury Department in time of peace 
and as a part of the Navy, subject 
to the orders of the Secretary of the 
Navy, in time of war. or when the 
President shall so direct. 

In general the duties of the Coast 
Guard may be classified as follows : 
Rendering assistance to vessels in 
distress and saving life and prop- 
erty; destruction or removal of 
wrecks, derelicts, and other floating 
dangers to navigation; extending 



♦This subject is so Important thai it forms a chapter in the tirst part with 
Lighthouses under the title "i "Government Protection <>t" Life and Property .it Sea." 



/ 



DEPARTMENT OP THE TREASURY 



503 




ICEBERG SIGHTED BY THE "SENECA" ON JUNE 8, 1916, IN LATITUDE 42.35 NORTH, 
LONGITUDE 49.36 WEST 



medical aid to American vessels en- 
gaged in deep-sea fisheries ; protec- 
tion of the customs revenue; oper- 
ating as a part of the Navy in time 
of war or when the President shall 
direct; enforcement of law ajid regu- 
lations governing anchorage of ves- 
sels in navigable waters ; enforce- 
ment of law relating to quarantine 
and neutrality ; suppression of mu- 
tinies on merchant vessels ; enforce- 
ment of navigation and other laws 
governing merchant vessels and mo- 
tor boats ; enforcement of law to 
provide for safety of life on navi- 
gable waters during regattas and 
marine parades ; protection of game 
and the seal and other fisheries in 
Alaska, etc. ; enforcement of sponge- 
fishing laws. 

To assist the Captain Command- 
ant in conducting the business of 
his office there are established the 
following divisions: 

Division of Operations — Having 
cognizance of matters relating to the 
personnel and operations of the 
service. 

Division of Material — Having cog- 
nizance of matters relating to sup- 
plies, outfits, equipment, accounts, 
and the files. 

Division of Construction and Re- 
pair — Having cognizance of matters 



relating to the construction of and 
repairs to the hulls of vessels and 
boats, stations, wharves, and all 
other property. 

Division of Engineering — Having 
cognizance of matters relating to 
the construction of and repairs to 
the motive power of vessels and 
boats and the machinery of all other 
property. 

Division of Inspection — Having 
cognizance of matters relating to the 
inspection of vessels, stations, boats, 
and all other property. 

Under the direction of the Cap- 
tain Commandant statistics are pre- 
pared regarding the loss of life and 
property on account of wrecked ves- 
sels in American waters. He is also 
required to acquaint himself, as far 
as practicable, with all means em- 
ployed in foreign countries which 
may seem to affect advantageously 
the interests of the Coast Guard, 
and to cause to be properly investi- 
gated all plans, devices, and inven- 
tions for the improvement of life- 
saving apparatus for use at the sta- 
tions which may appear to be meri- 
torious and available. This is ac- 
complished through the medium of 
the Roard on Life-Saving Appliances, 
which meets annually at Boston, 
Mass., for that purpose. 



OFFICE OF THE SUPERVISING ARCHITECT 



Under the direction of the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury, the Supervis- 
ing Architect acquires the sites and 
designs, constructs, equips, supplies, 



operates and repairs United States 
public buildings generally, marine 
hospitals and quarantine stations, 
and wharves, bridges, roads, sewers, 



504 



OUR COUNTRY and its RESOURCES 



etc., in connection therewith. When 
specially authorized by law plans 
are obtained by competition among 
private architects. The Super 
vising Architect's Office was organ- 
ized in IS53. T'ntil 1861 an Army 
Engineer had charge of construc- 
tion \\<>rk: since then Supervising 
Architect in sole charge. Present 
organization: Supervising Architect, 
the Executive Officer, directing the 
administrative phases of the work 
and in charge of the Accounts, 
.Maintenance. Repairs, and Files 
and Records Divisions, and Cus- 
todians' and Janitors' field force; 
the Technical Officer, directing the 
architectural and engineering work 
and in charge of the Drafting, 
Structural. Mechanical and Elec- 
trical Engineering, and Computing 
Divisions, Public Information Room, 
Duplicating and Photograph Gal- 
leries, and the Construction held 
i" »rce. Board of Award, composed 
of Supervising Architect. Executive 
Officer, Technical Officer and Super- 
intendent of Drafting Division, 
passes upon and recommends all im- 
portant expenditures (except for 
land i. 

Building work usually done by 
contract. Furniture and supplies 
generally obtained from manufac 
liners upon blanket annual con 
tracts. Awards are to lowest best 
bidder, after advertising and public 
opening of bids. Supervising Archi- 
tect approves materials and per- 
formance. Materials are tested by 



the National Bureau of Standards. 
Department orders land purchases 
and all expenditures from $500 up- 
wards. Funds disbursed from 
Washington mainly. Each project 
supervised by resident superintend- 
ent : each finished building in charge 
of custodian. Operating force and 
field force overseen by traveling 
inspectors. 

In 1853 the Supervising Architect 
had charge of 15 completed build- 
bags and 28 to be constructed. In 
1916 there are 1,073 completed pub- 
lic buildings, branch mints, assay 
offices, marine hospitals and quaran- 
tine stations: 117 separate projects 
under construction. 301 projects au- 
thorized, but not yet under con- 
struction: and 1G4 sites only (ac- 
quired or to be acquired) for which 
no buildings have yet been author- 
ized. 

The present headquarters force 
(quartered on the top floor of the 
Treasury Building) numbers 246. 
Field forces: Construction. 124; 
Operating force, about 5,000. The 
whole force of architects, engineers, 
draftsmen, computers, superintend- 
ents, inspectors, lawyers, account- 
ants, stenographers, clerks, mechan- 
ics, janitors, etc.. is within the 
classified civil service. 

For the fiscal year ending June 
30, 1!>1.">. the expenditures were: 

sites $1,288,597.04 

Construction 11 A't r.120.40 

Repairs, etc 1,347,303.67 

Supplies and Operation... 5,951,546.99 



UNITED STATES BUREAU OP WAR RISK INSURANCE 
By Director Wh.uui ('. De Lanoy 



The Bureau of War Risk Insur- 
ance was created by Act of Con- 
gress on September 2nd, 1914, to 
cover American vessels and their 
cargoes against the risks of war. 

It was to expire September 2nd, 
1916, but on August 11th, 1916, was 
extended for a period of one year. 

During the two years of this 
Bureau's existence it has covered 
war risk insurance on many vessels 
and cargoes where the market was 



small and without the assistance 
which was granted by the Bureau 
many of these vessels could not 
have sailed. 

From September 2nd, 191 1. to 
September 2nd, L916, the Bureau 
Issued 1,590 policies Insuring ships 
and cargoes Of a value of $145,831,- 
602, for which the Government re 
ceived in premiums $3,000,926.83, 
with a known loss to date of only 
$771,329.57, reduced through salvage 



DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 



505 



bv the sum of $5S.S11.42, reducing 
the net loss to $712,518.15. 

The expenses attending the con- 
duct of the Bureau up to August 
31st, 1916, a period of twenty-three 



months, have been $34,882.47. The 
Bureau has a list of ports to which 
the rates are not made public, but 
may be had upon application to the 
Bureau. 



AUDITOR FOR THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT 



The Auditor for the Treasury Depart- 
ment receives and settles all accounts of 
the Department of the Treasury, includ- 
ing all accounts relating to the customs 
service, the public debt, internal rev- 



enue, Treasurer and assistant treasurers, 
mints and assay offices, Bureau of En- 
graving and Printing. Coast Guard, Pub- 
lic Health Service. Farm Loan Board, 
public buildings and Secret Service. 



AUDITOR FOR THE WAR DEPARTMENT 



The Auditor for the War Department 
receives and settles all accounts of the 
Department of War. including those re- 
lating to the military establishment, 
armories and arsenals, national ceme- 

AUDITOR FOR THE I 

All claims and accounts arising under 
the Department of the Interior, which 
includes those having relation to the 
protection, survey and sale of public 
and Indian lands, the reclamation of 
arid public and Indian lands. Army and 
Navy pensions, Indian affairs, Geological 
Survey, Bureau of Education, Bureau 



teries, fortifications, public buildings and 
grounds under the supervision of the 
Chief of Engineers, rivers and harbors, 
the Military Academy and the Panama 

Canal. 

NTERIOR DEPARTMENT 

of Mines, Patent Office, Capitol Build- 
ing and Grounds. Freedmen's Hospital, 
Howard University, Columbia Institu- 
tion for the Deaf, Government Hospital 
for the Insane, Hot Springs Reserva- 
tion, the Yosemite and other national 
parks, and the construction of railroads 
in Alaska, are settled in this office. 



AUDITOR FOR THE NAVY DEPARTMENT 

The Auditor for the Navy Department accounts relating to the Naval Estab- 

receives and settles all accounts of the lishment, Marine Corps and the Naval 

Department of the Navy, including all Academy. 

AUDITOR FOR THE STATE AND OTHER DEPARTMENTS 



The Auditor for the State and Other 
Departments receives and settles the ac- 
counts of the White House ; the two 
Houses of Congress ; the Supreme Court ; 
the Departments of State, including the 
expenses of the Diplomatic and Consular 
Service ; Justice, covering expenses of 
United States courts ; Agriculture, in- 
cluding its field service ; Commerce ; 
Labor ; also the accounts of the follow- 

AUDITOR FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 



ing governmental establishments : Gov- 
ernment Printing Office ; Interstate Com- 
merce Commission ; Smithsonian Institu- 
tion and National Museum ; District of 
Columbia : Civil Service Commission : 
the Federal Reserve Board ; the Federal 
Trade Commission ; and all boards, com- 
missions and establishments of the Gov- 
ernment not under the administration 
of any executive department. 



The Auditor for the Post Office De- 
partment receives and examines all ac- 
counts of the office of the Postmaster 
General and of all bureaus and offices 
under his direction : all postal and 
money order accounts of postmasters 
and foreign administrations ; all ac- 
counts relating to the transportation of 
mails, and to all other business within 
the jurisdiction of the Post Office De- 
partment ; and certifies the balances 
arising thereon to the Postmaster Gen- 
eral for accounts of the postal revenue 
and expenditures therefrom, and to the 
Secretary of the Treasury for other ac- 
counts. He also receives and examines 
reports and accounts of postmasters 
operating postal savings banks, and ac- 
counts for expenditures from the appro- 
priation for continuing the establish- 
ment, maintenance, and extension of the 
postal savings depositories. lie registers, 
charges and countersigns the warrants 



upon the Treasury issued in liquidation 
of indebtedness ; superintends the col- 
lecting of debts due the United States 
for the service of the Post Office Depart- 
ment and all penalties imposed ; directs 
suits and all legal proceedings in civil 
actions : and takes all legal measures 
to enforce the payment of money due 
the United States for the service of the 
Post Office Department, and for this 
purpose has direct official relations with 
the Solicitor of the Treasury, Depart- 
ment of Justice. He receives and ac- 
cepts, with the written consent of the 
Postmaster General, offers of compro- 
mise under sections 295 and 409. Revised 
Statutes. He is required to submit to 
the Secretary of the Treasury quarterly 
statements of postal receipts and ex- 
penditures, and to report to the Post- 
master General the financial condition 
of the Post Office Department at the 
dose (if each fiscal year. 



CHAPTER VII. 
DEPARTMENT OF WAR* 



SECRETARY OF WAR 



TI1E Secretary of War is head 
of the War Department, and 
performs such duties as are re- 
quired of him by law or may be 
enjoined upon him by the President 
concerning the military service. 

He is charged by law with the 
supervision of all estimates of ap- 
propriations for the expenses of the 
department, including the military 
establishment : of all purchases of 
Army supplies; of all expenditures 
for the support, transportation, and 
maintenance of the Army, and of 
such expenditures of a civil nature 
as may be placed by Congress under 
his direction. 

He also has supervision of the 
T'nited States Military Academy at 
West Point and of military educa- 
tion in the Army, of the Board of 



Ordnance and Fortification, of the 
various battlefield commissions, and 
of the publication of Official Records 
of the War of the Rebellion. 

He has charge of all matters re- 
lating to national defense and sea- 
coast fortifications, Army ordnance, 
river and harbor improvements, the 
prevention of obstruction to naviga- 
tion, and the establishment of har- 
bor lines: and all plans and loca- 
tions of bridges authorized by 
Congress to lie constructed over the 
navigable waters of the United 
States require his approval. He 
also has charge of the establishment 
or abandonment of military posts, 
and of all matters relating to 
leases, revocable licenses, anil all 
other privileges upon lands under 
the control of the War Department. 



ASSISTANT SECRETARY OP WAR 



To the Assistant Secretary of War 
is assigned the general direction and 
supervision of all matters relating 
to rivers and harbors; bridges over 
navigable waters of the United 

State-: leases, revocable licenses, 
and all other privileges upon lands 
under the control of the War I >e- 
partment; inspections relating to 
the military establishment; recruit- 
ing service, discharges, commutation 
of rations, courts -martial, and other 
questions relating to enlisted men, 
including clemency cases and mat- 
ter- relating to prisoners at military 
prisons and penitentiaries. 



lie also has charge of routine 
matters relating to the militia; the 
promotion of rifle practice; the su- 
pervision of miscellaneous claims 
and accounts; matters relating to 
national cemeteries, boards of sur- 
vey, open-ma rkel purchases, and 
medals of honor. 

The Assistant Secretary of War is 
also vested with authority to decide 
all cases which do not involve ques- 
tions of policy, the establishment or 
reversal of precedents, or matters 
of special or extraordinary im- 
portance which may be assigned to 
him. 



*A Bpecial chapter on the Army begins on page 281. 

Copyright by Muun & Co., Inc. 



DEPARTMENT OF WAR 



507 



ASSISTANT AND CHIEF CLERK 



The Assistant and Chief Clerk of 
the War Department is the head of 
the Office of the Secretary of War, 
and as such has charge of the rec- 
ords and files, and supervision of 
the receipt, distribution, and trans- 
mission of the official mail and cor- 
respondence of that office, and is 
charged with the administrative 
action required by law to be taken 
in connection with the settlement of 
disbursing officers' accounts that do 
not relate to the different staff corps 



of the Army. He has general super- 
vision of matters relating to civi- 
lian employees in and under the 
War Department; printing and 
binding and advertising for the 
War Department and the Army: 
appropriations for contingent ex- 
penses, stationery, rent of build- 
ings; and the department's tele- 
graph and telephone service; and 
performs such other duties as may 
be required by the Secretary of 
War. 



THE GENERAL STAFF CORPS, U. S. ARMY 



The duties of the General Staff 
Corps, as stated in the organic act 
of Congress establishing it, are: 

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF STAFF 

The Chief of Staff is the military 
advisor of the Secretary of War. 
The Office of the Chief of Staff, for 
the purpose of carrying into effect 
the supervising, co-ordinating and 
informing powers conferred upon 
him by law, constitutes a supervis- 
ing military bureau of the War 
Department. 

The Chief of Staff issues, through 
the Adjutant General of the Army, 
all orders and instructions of the 
Secretary of War affecting the Regu- 
lar Army and the National Guard. 

FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERAL STAFF 
CORPS 

The collation and discussion of 
all obtainable data relating to strate- 
gical, tactical and logistic features 
of military operations at home and 
abroad ; the formulation of com- 
plete working plans for passing 
quickly from a state of peace to a 
state of war, including the mobiliza- 
tion of all the available military 
forces of the United States ; also 
the preparation and keeping up to 
date of detailed plans of defensive 
and offensive operations against 
each country with which the United 
States might become involved in 
war. 



The collection, classification and 
distribution of military information 
concerning («) the strength, organ- 
ization, personnel, armament and 
equipment of our own and foreign 
armies; (&) natural and artificial 
routes of communication (rivers, 
canals, roads and railroads) ; (c) 
the manufacture of arms, ammuni- 
tion and other war materials; (d) 
supplies of food, horses, mules, pack 
and draft animals; (e) road 
vehicles, including motors and trac- 
tors. 

The supervision of the work of 
military attaches and observers ; the 
conduct of correspondence with 
them ; inspection of their accounts 
and recommendations as to their de- 
tail and relief ; the exchange of mili- 
tary information with foreign war 
offices through their representatives 
in Washington ; the preparation of 
instructions for the guidance of offi- 
cers of the Army serving or travel- 
ing abroad or acting as military 
attaches or observers, and the colla- 
tion of information contained in 
their reports. 

The collation, preservation, ar- 
rangement, filing and indexing of 
maps, sketches and plans, American 
and foreign ; and the general super- 
vision over the compilation of a pro- 
gressive military map of the United 
States and its possessions. 

The collection, preparation and 
distribution to the military service 



108 



(.1 K C01 NTWY AND ITS RKSiW fcCES 



of military information concerning 
our own and foreigD countries-. 

The preparation, from « »Hi<-i nl rec- 
ords, of analytical and critical his- 
tories of important campaigns for 
distribution to the Army. 

The supervision and co-ordination 
of military education; training; 
plans for Held maneuvers. 

The study of the needs of the 
military service, and recommending 
Changes therein; consideration of 
matters pertaining to armament, 
equipment and clothing; location, 
design and construction of posts. 

The preparation of schemes of 
legislation for the increase of mili- 



tary preparedness, when directed by 
higher authority, for submission to 
Congress, and such other schemes 
of legislation for the improvement 
of the military service as may be 
directed. 

The maintenance at the War Col- 
lege of a military library for the 
use of the War Department and the 
Army at large. 

The conduct of a photographic 
laboratory for the reproduction of 
maps, sketches, photographs and 
illustrations, lantern slides and such 
other photographic work as may lie 
required for the War Department 
and the Army at large. 



THE ARMY WAR COLLEGE 



The idea of a War College for 
the United States Army was firsl 
suggested by the Honorable Elihu 
Root, then Secretary of War. in his 
annual report for 1899. In the 
words of its founder, its purpose is 

"nut to promote war, but to preserve 
peace by intelligent ami adequate prep- 
aration to repel invasion. It is a growth 
a ii. I not a new departure. Only an insti- 
tution permanent, hut always changing 



feci iveness 

entitled." 



to which that judgment is 



The functions thus described are 
really those of a General Staff and 
it is worthy of note that the Army 
War College as first established by 
War Department order in 1901 per- 
formed the duties of such a body 
until the General Staff was actually 
created by Act of Congress in 19Uo. 




WAR COLLEGE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



in its individual < -•■■ uts, in which, by 

conference and discussion, a consensus 
of matured opinion can be reached, can 
perpetuate the result of individual effort, 
secure continuity of military pcli \ ind 
command for Its authorized conclusive 
expressions nf military judgment, upon 
military questions, tin- respect and ef- 



After thai date the War College as- 
sumed its true function of training 
selected officers for staff duty and 
higher command in war. the control- 
ling idea being that each class shall 
be a useful adjunct to the General 



DEPARTMENT OF WAR 



509 



Staff in its study of the military 
problems affecting our country. 

In order to accomplish this result, 
the year's work is made to include 
studies in the tactical and strate- 
gical handling of large bodies of 
troops, in the general control of the 
auxiliary services, and in offensive 
and defensive questions of military, 
as dependent upon national, policy. 
The course opens with map prob- 
lems and map maneuvers of a prac- 
tical nature, representing, actual 
phases in military operations that 
might have to be undertaken by our 
forces in time of war. These studies 
are confirmed on the ground, when- 
ever practicable, by terrain, tactical 
and staff rides. These problems are 
only sufficient to insure that ideas 
shall be uniform and that opera- 
tions shall be conducted in accord- 
ance with an accepted doctrine of 
war. The remainder of the course 
includes a series of original investi- 
gations, studies of war plans, contri- 
butions to military monographs, 
studies in military geography, in 
methods of obtaining military in- 
formation, and in military historical 
research. The final result is that 
each class contributes something of 
permanent value for future refer- 
ence. This is possible only because 
the officers detailed to take the 
course are men of experience, 
preferably graduates of the Staff 
College at Fort Leavenworth, and 
well versed in the theory of their 
profession. The President of the 
Army War College is a general offi- 
cer detailed to the General Staff as 
assistant to the Chief of Staff, and 
the faculty is selected from the grad- 
uates of the Army War College. 

At first the sessions of the Army 
War College were held in a private 
residence rented for the purpose in 
Washington and this continued until 
1907 when the present magnificent 
building on the site of the old Wash- 
ington Barracks was first occupied. 
It provides quarters not only for the 
War College but also for the bulk 
of the General Staff on duty in 
Washington. The building, which 



cost about $700,000, is of modern 
construction and material but is 
purely classic in design. It is 
massive, well proportioned and im- 
pressive. In size the building is 300 
feet long and 125 feet deep. The 
materials used in the construction 
of the exterior are red Pompeian 
pressed brick, laid in Flemish bond, 
with ornamentation of limestone and 
roof of dark slate. 




Photo G. V. Buck 
CONFERENCE ROOM, WAR COLLEGE 

In the center of the front facade 
is the main entrance pavilion, con- 
sisting of a pedimental gable with 
massive piers on either side and 
beautifully proportioned Ionic col- 
umns in the center. The design of 
this entrance pavilion is duplicated 
at either end of the building. The 
portions of the structure flanking 
the pavilion are in the pilaster style 
of treatment. Great dignity is lent 
to the exterior by the approaches. 
Low granite steps lead to a wide 
platform paved with red brick laid 
in ornamental patterns. The build- 
ing is one of the most artistic edi- 
fices in the country, and is con- 
sidered to rival the Library of Con- 
gress in its technical perfection. 

The interior is perfectly adapted 
to its purposes. Passing under the 
entrance pavilion, the visitor arrives 
in the large rotunda, with its four 
columns supporting an octagonal 
dome. Immediately beyond this i s 
the main lecture room for the War 



.10 



OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



College, with a seating capacity of 
250; to the right of the rotunda, 
in the center of the building, is the 
library, and t<> the left is the map 

r ii. both extending to the roof. 

On the long sides of the building are 
the various lecture and conference 



shops, store rooms and vaults are 
in the basement. The map room 
contains a magnificenl collection of 
the military maps <>f all nations ar- 
ranged for ready reference. The 
library contains more than 100,000 
volumes, and its method of classi- 







fc/* J ^l k ' 


*i 1 






— ~* ■» §k i a- 1 1 j£4i mJmmfim 


Wt ■ 






^r ^ r 


.'jtBB. ■ Hmv 1 ' 1 




^s^S^^H 



Photo Harris & Ewing 

ARMY WAR GAME BEING PLAYED AT THE WAR COLLEGE BY DISTINGUISHED 

ARMY OFFICERS 



rooms, record rooms, work rooms 
and offices. The galleries of the 
library and map room are set aside 
for map drafting and mounting. The 
photographic department, complete 
for every kind of work, the work- 



tication and card indexing, devel- 
oped by the present Assistant 
Librarian, is considered to be the 
mosl remarkable and complete sys- 
tem of its kind for ready reference 
in this country. 



MILITIA BUREAU 



The .Militia Bureau is vested with 

all administrative duties Involving 
the organization, armament. Instruc- 
tion, equipment, discipline, training, 
inspection, and payment of the Na- 
tional < ruard : the conducl of camps 
of instruction of the National < ruard, 
and the administrative duties con 
nected with the preparation of the 
National Guard for participation in 



field exercises and maneuvers of the 
Regular Army; the mobilization of 
the National Guard in time of peace ; 
and all matters not herein generi- 
cally enumerated which do not under 
existing laws, regulations, orders, or 
practice come within the jurisdic- 
tion of the General Stafl or any 
division or bureau of the War I >e 
partment 



DEPARTMENT OF WAR 



511 



MILITARY BUREAUS 

THE CHIEFS OF THE MILITARY BUREAUS OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT ARE 

OFFICERS OF THE REGULAR ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES AND A 

PART OF THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT 



OFFICE OF THE ADJUTANT GENERAL 



The Adjutant General is charged 
with the duty of recording, authenti- 
cating, and communicating to troops 
and individuals in the military serv- 
ice all orders, instructions, and regu- 
lations issued by the Secretary of 
War through the Chief of Staff, or 
otherwise ; of preparing and dis- 
tributing commissions ; of compiling 
and issuing the Army Register and 
the Army List and Directory ; of 
consolidating the general returns of 
the Army; of arranging and pre- 
serving the reports of officers of the 
Army detailed to visit encampments 
of militia ; of compiling and main- 
taining a list showing the names of 
officers of the Army on detached 
service ; of managing the recruiting 
service, and of conducting corre- 
spondence concerning the military 
service generally, including such as 
pertains to military training camps, 
rifle practice, the Officers' Reserve 
Corps, the Reserve Officers' Train- 
ing Corps and the Enlisted Reserve 
Corps. He is also vested with the 
government and control, under the 
direction of the Secretary of War. 
of the United States Disciplinary 
Barracks and its branches, and all 
offenders sent thereto for confine- 
ment and detention ; and is charged 
with the duty of issuing and record- 
ing orders from the War Depart- 
ment remitting or mitigating sen- 
tences of general prisoners, or honor- 
ably restoring them to duty. The 
Adjutant General is vested by law 
with the charge, under the Secretary 
of War, "of the military and hospi- 
tal records of the volunteer armies 
and the pension and other business 
of the War Department connected 
therewith ;" of publishing War De- 
partment regulations, manuals and 
miscellaneous documents pertaining 
to the military service and dis- 
tributing to the Army such publica- 



tions, as well as those publications 
of a private nature as are useful in 
the military establishment ; of pub- 
lishing and distributing the Official 
Records of the Union and Confed- 
erate Armies ; of obtaining, compil- 
ing and keeping continually up to 
date all obtainable information as to 
the names, ages, addresses, occupa- 
tions and qualifications for appoint- 
ment as commissioned officers of the 
Army, in time of war or other emer- 
gency, of men of suitable ages who, 
by reason of having received mili- 
tary training in civilian educational 
institutions or elsewhere, may be re- 
garded as qualified and available for 
appointment as such commissioned 
officers ; and of issuing certificates 
of enlistment in the Enlisted Reserve 
Corps. He also has charge of the 
historical records and business of 
the permanent military establish- 
ment, and all pension, pay, bounty, 
and other business pertaining to or 
based upon the military or medical 
histories of former officers or en- 
listed men, including the considera- 
tion of applications for the Congres- 
sional Medal of Honor ; for the bene- 
fits of the act of Congress approved 
April 27, 1916, establishing the Army 
and Navy Medal of Honor Roll ; 
for certificates of military service, 
certificates of merit, and certifi- 
cates authorizing the purchase of 
campaign badges, and for removal 
of charges of desertion and the issue 
of discharge certificates to such sol- 
diers finally charged with desertion 
as are entitled to relief under the 
terms of existing law. The archives 
of the Adjutant General's office in- 
clude all military records of the 
Revolutionary War in the possession 
of the General Government ; the rec- 
ords of all organizations, officers, 
and enlisted men that have been in 
the military service of the United 



-.11' 



OUR COI XTKY AND its RESOURCES 



States since the Revolutionary War, 
including those pertaining to the vol- 
unteer forces and the National 
Guard while in the active service of 
the United states ; the records of the 
movements ami operations of troops : 
the medical and bospital records of 
the Army; all reports of physical 
examination of recruits and identi- 



fication records; the records of the 
Provost Marshal General's Bureau; 
the records of the Bureau of Refu- 
gees, Freedmen, ami Abandoned 

Land-: and a considerable collection 
of Confederate records, including 
those pertaining to the Legislative, 

executive, and judicial branches of 
the Confederate Government. 



OFFICE OF THF [NSPECTOB GENERAL 



The duty of the officers of the 
Inspector General's Department is 

to inspect the Army in all its de- 
tails, and the scope of their 
inquiry includes every branch of 
military affairs. They exercise a 
comprehensive and general observa- 
tion within the commands to which 
they are assigned over all that per- 
tains to the efficiency of the Army, 
the condition and state of supplies 
of all kinds, of arms and equipments, 
of the expenditure of public prop- 
erty and money, and the condition 



of accounts of all disbursing officers 
of every branch of the service; of 
the conduct, discipline and efficiency 
of officers and troops, and report 
with strict impartiality in regard to 
all irregularities that may be dis- 
covered, with a view to their being 
remedied. They also inspect the 
Soldiers' Home, the ten branches of 
the National Home for Disabled Vol- 
unteer Soldiers, the Army transports 
ami National Guard; and make in- 
vestigations ordered by the Secretary 
of War or Department Commanders. 



OFFICE OF THE JUDGE ADVOCATE OEXERAL 



The Judge Advocate General is 
directed by law to "receive, review. 

and cause to be recorded the pro- 
ceedings of all courts-martial, courts 

of inquiry, and military commis- 
sions." He reports upon applica- 
tions for clemency, parole, pardon, 
restoration to the colors, remission 
of citizenship rights, and re-enlist- 
ment of general prisoners and dis- 
honorably discharged soldiers. He 
also furnishes the Secretary of War 
information and advice relating to 
lands under the control of the War 
Department, as well as reports and 
opinions upon legal questions arising 



under the laws, regulations, and cus- 
toms pertaining to the Army, and 
upon miscellaneous questions aris- 
ing under civil law; examines and 
prepares legal papers relating to the 
construction of bridges, dams, or 
other work over or in navigable 
waters; drafts bonds and examines 
those given to the Tinted States by 
disbursing officers, colleges, rifle 
Clubs, and others; examines, revises, 
and drafts charges against officers 
and soldiers; and drafts and exam- 
ines deeds, contracts, licenses, and 
other legal papers relating to mat- 
ters under the War Department 



OFFICE OF THE QUARTERMASTER GENERAL 



Under the provisions of the Re- 
vised Statutes. Statutes at Large, 
current appropriation ads. and 
Army Regulations, the Quartermas- 
ter General is charged with the fol- 
lowing duties : 

(a i Pay of officers and enlisted 
men of the Army, including Staff 
Corps and Staff Departments, Porto 



Rico Regimenl of Infantry and Phil- 
ippine Scouts; additional pay for 
length of service and foreign serv- 
ice; pay of retired officers and re- 
tired enlisted men: pay of Regular 
Army Reserve, Officers' Reserve 

Corps, Enlisted .Men's Reserve; 
mileage; commutation of quarters 
for commissioned officers and vet- 



DEPARTMENT OF WAR 



513 



erinarians; pay of nurses, hospital 
matrons, veterinarians of Cavalry 
and Field Artillery and Quartermas- 
ter Corps, contract surgeons and re- 
tired pay clerks ; expenses of courts 
martial, courts of inquiry, military 
commissions, and compensation of 
reporters and witnesses attending 
same ; travel allowance to enlisted 
men on discharge; value of clothing 
undrawn to enlisted men on dis- 
charge; interest on soldiers' depos- 
its; receiving and paying deposits 
of enlisted men ; gratuity pay. 

(6) Purchase of subsistence sup- 
plies for issue as rations to troops, 
civil employees, hospital matrons, 
and others entitled thereto: sub- 
sistence of masters, officers, crews, 
and employees of the Army Trans- 
port Service; hot coffee for troops 
traveling when supplied with cooked 
or travel rations : meals for recruit- 
ing parties and applicants for en- 
listment while held under observa- 
tion ; for sales to officers ; commuta- 
tion of rations to the Cadets of the 
United States Military Academy: 
commutation in lieu of rations to 
enlisted men on furlough, enlisted 
men and male and female nurses 
when stationed at places where ra- 
tions in kind can not be economically 
issued and when traveling on de- 
tached duty, enlisted men selected 
to contest for places or prizes in 
Army rifle competitions while travel- 
ing to and from place of contest, 
male and female nurses on leaves of 
absence, applicants for enlistment, 
and general prisoners while travel- 
ing under orders ; commutation in 
lien of regular established ration for 
members of Nurse Corps (female) 
while on duty in hospitals, and for 
enlisted men, applicants for enlist- 
ment while held under observation, 
and general prisoners sick in hospi- 
tals ; prizes for enlisted men gradu- 
ates of schools for bakers and cooks ; 
authorized issues of soap, candles, 
matches, and salt and vinegar for 
animals ; towels for offices ; author- 
ized issues of toilet paper, toilet ar- 
ticles, barbers' and tailors' materials 
for use of general prisoners confined 



at military posts without pay or 
allowances, and applicants for en- 
listment while held under observa- 
tion ; issue of toilet kits to recruits ; 
for other necessary expenses inci- 
dent to the purchase, testing, care, 
preservation, issue, sale, and' ac- 
counting for sub. istence supplies ; 
for purchase, issue, repair and main- 
tenance of stoves, ranges, field 
ranges, field bakeries, and appliances 
for cooking and serving food to 
troops in garrison and in the field; 
tableware, kitchen utensils, and 
mess furniture, stationery for the 
Army, including blank books, blank 
forms, and the necessary printing; 
purchase, issue, repair and main- 
tenance of prescribed field equipment 
and supplies for garrison use; pur- 
chase and issue of ice for use of 
troops, offices, and preservation of 
stores ; providing cold storage ; con- 
struction and maintenance of ice 
plants, laundries, post bakeries, and 
power plants for lighting, and for 
supply of water; purchase and issue 
of water bags, sterilizers and neces- 
sary chemicals for purifying water; 
purchase and issue of fuel for heat- 
ing barracks, quarters and other 
public buildings and for cooking 
food ; fuel for operation of modern 
batteries, pumping and other power 
plants; fuel for operation of trans- 
ports and harbor vessels of the 
Army ; furnishing light, including 
mineral oil ; necessary furniture, 
text books, paper, and other equip- 
ment for post schools and libraries; 
subscriptions for newspapers and 
periodicals for the enlisted men; 
forage for the animals of the Army, 
including bedding ; purchase and 
issue of typewriters, adding ma- 
chines, addressographs and other 
devices for use of the Army; seeds 
and implements for raisins forage 
at remount depots ; hire of all em- 
ployees pertaining to the Quarter- 
master Corps ; extra duty pay for 
members of disciplinary barracks 
guard, to enlisted men on duty as 
school teachers and stewards and 
cooks at recruit depots ; purchase 
and issue of office furniture and 



514 



OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



office equipment ; payment of re- 
wards for apprehension <>t' deserters 
mid escaped military prisoners; do- 
oations of $5 t<> dishonorably dis- 
charged prisoners; purchase and 
issue of blacksmiths' tools and 
materials, horse and mule shoes, 
horseshoe nails, wheelwrights' and 
other tools: purchase and supply of 
flagstaffs, surveying instruments, re- 
frigerators, wall lockers, trunk lock- 
ers, window shades, screen doors and 
window screens: purchase and issue 
of animals for the Army; equipment 
and maintenance of remount depots; 
purchase, issue, and repair, main- 
tenance and operation of wagons, 
motor vehicles, and other vehicles : 
purchase, manufacture, and issue of 
harness and pack equipment; pur- 
chase and manufacture of uniforms 
for the Army; purchase and issue 
of other articles of clothing; pur- 
chase and manufacture of tentage 
and other articles of equipage; pur- 
chase and issue of technical books; 
transportation of troops and impedi- 
menta : transportation of civilian 
employees, of baggage of officers, 
troops and employees; transporta- 
tion of animals for the Army ; trans- 
portation of Army supplies; trans- 



portation of funds: payment of 
wharfage, tolls, and ferriage; con- 
struction, operation, and mainte- 
nance of harbor vessels for the Mo- 
bile Army and for the Coast Artil- 
lery, tacluding mine planters and 
cable ships; operation and mainte- 
nance of Army Transport Service on 
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and 
the Gulf of .Mexico: charter of ves- 
sels for transport purposes: lease of 
buildings for quarters, storehouses 
and offices; lease of grounds for 
camp sites; hire of Lodgings for re- 
cruits; care and protection of mili- 
tary reservations; care and main- 
tenance of post cemeteries and na- 
tional cemeteries; care and improve- 
ment of grounds at military posts; 
and attends to all matters connected 
with the military service which are 
not expressly assigned to some other 
bureau of the War Department 

(c) Constructs and repairs quar- 
ters for officers, barracks for en- 
listed men. storehouses for Storage 
of supplies, administration build- 
ings, offices, power plants, roads, 
walks. wharves. water systems, 
sewer systems and drainage sys- 
tems; acquires land for military 
purposes. 



OFFICE OF THE 

The Surgeon General is the ad- 
viser of the War Department upon 
all medical and sanitary affairs of 
the Army. He has administrative 
control of the Medical Department; 
the disbursement of its appropria- 
tions; the designation of the stations 
of medical officers, dental officers and 
veterinary surgeons, and the issuing 
of all orders and instructions relat- 



STJRGEON GENERAL 

ing to their professional duties; the 
recruitment, instruction and control 
of the Hospital Corps and of the Army 
Nurse ( !orps. He directs the selection, 
purchase and distribution of medical 
Supplies. The Army .Medical Mu- 
seum, the library of the Surgeon 
General's Office, medical supply 
depots, and the general hospitals 
are under his direct control. 



OFFICE of THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS 



The Chief of Engineers commands 
the Corps of Engineers, which is 
charged with reconnoitering and 

surveying for military purposes, in- 
cluding the laying out of camps, 

selection of site-, and formation of 
plans and estimates for military de- 
fenses, construction and repair 01 
fortifications and their accessories, 



the installation of electric-power 

plants and electric-power cable con- 
nected with seacoast batteries, and 
furnishing the necessary electrical 
supplies connected therewith: plan- 
ning and superintending of defensive 
or offensive works of troops in the 
Held : examination of routes of com- 
munications for supplies and for 



Department of war 



515 



military movement!? ; construction 
and repair of military roads, rail- 
roads and bridges ; and military 
demolitions. In time of war, within 
the theater of operations, it has 
charge of the location, design, and 
construction of wharves, piers, land- 
ings, storehouses, hospitals, and 
other structures of general interest ; 
and of the construction, main- 
tenance, and repair of roads, fer- 
ries, bridges, and incidental struc- 
tures ; and of the construction, 
maintenance, and operation of rail- 
roads under military control, includ- 
ing the construction and operation 
of armored trains. 

The Corps of Engineers is also 
charged with the improvement of 
rivers and harbors ; with matters 
arising under the laws for the pro- 
tection and preservation of navigable 
waters, including the establishment 
of harbor lines, anchorage grounds, 
and rules and regulations therefor ; 
rules and regulations for canals 
owned, operated, or maintained by 
the United States, for any public 
navigable channel improved under 
authority of Congress, and for the 



navigation of streams on which the 
floating of loose timber and sack 
rafts is the principal method of 
navigation ; also with the issuance 
of permits for the construction, 
alteration, maintenance, and opera- 
tion of bridges, the granting of per- 
mits for structures or work in navi- 
gable waters, and the removal of 
wrecks and other obstructions to 
navigation ; with questions pertain- 
ing to the supervision of the harbor 
of New York and adjacent waters 
to prevent obstructive and injurious 
deposits ; with surveying and chart- 
ing the Great Lakes, the natural 
navigable waters of the New York 
State canals, Lake Champlain, the 
Lake of the Woods, and other 
boundary and connecting waters be- 
tween said lake and Lake Superior; 
with the preservation of Niagara 
Falls ; with public buildings and 
grounds in the District of Columbia ; 
with the water supply of Washing- 
ton, D. C. ; with the construction of 
monuments and memorials ; and 
with the construction of roads and 
bridges in the Yellowstone and Cra- 
ter Lake National Parks. 



OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ORDNANCE 



The Chief of Ordnance commands 
the Ordnance Department, the du- 
ties of which consist in providing, 
preserving, distributing, and ac- 
counting for every description of 
artillery, small arms, and all the 
munitions of war which may be re- 
quired for the fortresses of the 
country, the armies in the field, and 
for the whole body of the militia 
of the Union. In these duties are 
comprised that of determining the 



general principles of construction 
and of prescribing in detail the 
models and forms of all military 
weapons employed in war. They 
comprise also the duty of prescrib- 
ing the regulations for the proof and 
inspection of all these weapons, for 
maintaining uniformity and econ- 
omy in their fabrication, for insur- 
ing their good quality, and for their 
preservation and distribution at all 
times. 



BOARD OF ORDNANCE AND FORTIFICATION 



The Board of Ordnance and Forti- 
fication was created in 1888 to assist 
in the development of war material, 
especially that pertaining to ord- 
nance and fortification. The board 
has an appropriation from Congress 
for carrying out the development 
and test of inventions for which no 
special provision is otherwise made. 



and considers a very large number 
of inventions submitted by civilians, 
as well as persons in the military 
service, each year. A large amount 
of very important development work 
has been carried on under the board 
and the board is glad to have sub- 
mitted to it any inventions relating 
to military subjects. 



516 



01 i: C01 \tj;\ and ITS RESOURCES 



The membership of tlio board con- 
sists of six senior Army officers, rep- 



resenting various technical branches 
of the service, and of one civilian. 



OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER 



The Chief Signal Officer is charged 

with the duty of operating or super- 
vising the operation of all military 
air crafl and with the duty of train- 
ing officers and men connected there- 
with; with the supervision of all 
military signal duties, and of hooks. 
papers, and devices connected there- 
with, including telegraph, telephone, 
and radio apparatus and the neces- 



sary meteorological instruments for 
use on target ranges and other mili- 
tary uses; the construction, repair, 
and operation of military telegraph 
lines and cables, and the duty of 
collecting and transmitting informa- 
tion for the Army by telegraph or 
otherwise, and all other duties 
usually pertaining to military sig- 
naling. 



OFFICE OF PUBLIC BUII.IUXOS AM) GROUNDS 



The Office of Public Buildings 
and Grounds, Washington, I ». C, 

is the successor of the Commis- 
sioners of Public Buildings and 
Grounds, established in 17!>2 under 
the direction of President Wash- 
ington, and is now a bureau of the 
War Department. The United states 
Army Engineer Officer in Charge is 
Military Aide to the President. He 
administers the public park system 
of the District of Columbia for the 
Chief of Engineers, United States 
Army, under whose jurisdiction and 
control it has been placed by law ; 
this park system comprises over 400 
parcels of Federal property, amount- 
bag in all to over 1100 acres, and 
includes the Mall System as pro- 
posed by [/Enfant and elaborated 
by the Park Commission of 1901. 
He is in charge of the preservation, 
care and safety of all the buildings 
occupied by the War Department, of 



the Highway Bridge across the Poto- 
mac and of the monument at the 
birthplace of Washington. As Ex- 
ecutive and Disbursing Officer of 
the Grant Memorial Commission, of 
the Lincoln Memorial Commission, 
of the Arlington Memorial Amphi- 
theater Commission and of the Fran- 
cis Scott Key Monument Commis- 
sion (which monument is to be 
erected at Fort McHenry. Baltimore, 
Md.i, he supervises and controls the 
erection of those memorials. As Ex- 
ecutive ami Disbursing Officer of the 
Lock Creek and Potomac Parkway 
Commission he has the development 
of that project under his charge. He 
is a member and disbursing officer 
of the commission to prepare plans 
and estimates for an armory for the 
National Guard of the District of 
Columbia, and he is Executive and 
Disbursing Officer of the Arlington 
.Memorial Bridge Commission. 



BUREAU OF INSULAR AFFAIRS 



Following the Spanish-American 
War the War Department was con- 
fronted with varied and com] ilex 
problems in the administration of 
the civil affairs of the territory 
occupied by the military forces of 
the United states. There were 
no precedents t<> winch the officers 
charged with the administration of 
the affairs of this territory could 
turn for guidance, and the difficul- 



ties of these officers were further 
complicated owing to the lack of any 
administrative' machinery for hand- 
ling these problems. Notwithstand- 
ing the frequency in the past with 
which the War Department had 
been called on to conduct military 
governments and civil governments 
during military occupation, there 
bad existed in the department no 
bureau or division to which in a 



DEPARTMENT OF WAR 



:>\- 



particular manner was committed 
this work of supervision. The then 
Secretary of War, recognizing the 
urgent need of such a bureau or 
division, organized, in December, 
1898, the Division of Insular Affairs. 
The rapid growth of the division 
thus organized led to its being given 
a legal existence July 1, 1002. and 
since that date has been known as 
the Bureau of Insular Affairs. 

To the Bureau of Insular Affairs, 
under the immediate direction of 
the Secretary of War, is assigned 
all matters pertaining to civil gov- 
ernment in the island possessions 
of the United States subject to the 
jurisdiction of the War Department, 
the Philippine Islands and Porto 
Rico being the only ones so subject 
at the present time. The bureau is 
also the repository of the civil rec- 
ords of the government of occupa- 
tion of Cuba, and had assigned to it 
matters pertaining to the provisional 
government of Cuba. It makes a 
comptroller's review of the receipts 
and expenditures of the Philippine 



and Porto Rican governments; at- 
tends to the purchase and shipment 
of supplies for these governments ; 
has charge of appointments of per- 
sons in the United States to the 
civil service of the Philippines and 
Porto Rico, including arrangements 
for transportation. It gathers sta- 
tistics of insular imports and ex- 
ports, shipping and immigration, 
and issues periodical summaries of 
the same. In addition the bureau 
has, subject to the direction of the 
Secretary of State, supervision and 
control of the Dominican Receiver- 
ship for the collection of customs 
revenues and payment of the inter- 
est and principal of the adjusted 
bonded indebtedness of the Domini- 
can Republic. It exercises for the 
receivership practically the same 
functions as it does for the insular 
] possessions, particularly with re- 
spect to the custody of records, the 
preparation and dissemination of 
statistics and other information, 
the purchase of supplies and the 
appointment of employees. 



BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS 



The Board of Engineers for Rivers 
and Harbors is a permanent body, 
created by the River and Harbor 
Act of June 13th, 1902. To it are 
referred all reports upon exam- 
inations and surveys provided for 
by Congress, and all projects or 
changes in projects for works of 
river and harbor improvement upon 
which report is desired by the 
Chief of Engineers, United States 
Army. It is further the duty of the 
Board, upon request by the Com- 
mittee on Commerce of the Senate, 



or by the Committee on Rivers and 
Harbors of the House of Repre- 
sentatives in the same manner, ro 
examine and report through the 
Chief of Engineers upon any ex- 
aminations, surveys, or projects for 
the improvement of rivers and har- 
bors. In its investigations the 
board gives consideration to all en- 
gineering, commercial, navigation 
and economic questions involved in 
determining the advisability of un- 
dertaking such improvements at the 
expense of the United States. 



OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF COAST ARTILLERY 



1. It is the duty of the Chief of 
Coast Artillery to keep the Chief of 
Staff advised and informed with 
respect to the business under his 
charge, including the efficiency of 
the personnel and material of the 
coast artillery, and he shall, as 
circumstances require, make such 
recommendations in reference there- 



to as shall in his judgment tend to 
promote efficiency. 

2. He shall from time to time, and 
as frequently as conditions require, 
confer directly with the chiefs of 
bureaus of the War Department and 
advise them of all matters relating 
to coast artillery material or per- 
sonnel that pertain to their re- 



518 



OUR COl NTRY AND J'l'S RESOURCES 



spective branches of the service, 
which the experience and observa- 
tion of the coast artillery arm <>t" 
the scrvii-c show to be of practical 
importance. In like manner he may 
correspond directly with the com- 
mandant of the Coast Artillery 
School, and with the president of 
the Coasl Artillery Board, on coast 
artillery questions of a purely tech- 
nical character which do not involve 
matters of command, discipline, or 
administration, and do ool relate to 
the status or interests of individuals. 
3. He shall make recommendations 
as to the instruction of coast artil- 
lery officers and men. and as to 
examinations for appointment and 
transfer of officers to the const artil- 
lery arm and for promotion therein, 
and shall recommend such examina- 
tions and such courses ami methods 



of instruction in the Coasl Artillery 
School and elsewhere as he shall 
deem requisite t<> secure a thorough- 
ly trained and educated force; to 
this end li«' is authorized to issue 
directly to coast artillery officers 
bulletins and circulars of informa- 
tion on current coast artillery mat- 
ters of a purely technical character 
which do not involve matters of 
command, discipline, or administra- 
tion, and do not relate to the status 
or interests of individuals. 

-1. lie is charged with the recom- 
mending of officers of coast artillery 
for special duty and assignment to 
coast artillery organizations and 
stations. 

.">. He shall be a member of the 
Board of Ordnance and Fortification 
and is by law a member of the Gen- 
eral Staff Corps. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE 



ATTORNEY GENERAL 




T 



^HE Attor- 
ney Gener- 
al is the 
head of the De- 
partment of Jus- 
tice and t h e 
chief law officer 
of the Govern- 
ment. He rep- 
resents the Unit- 
ed States in matters involving legal 
questions ; he gives his advice and 
opinion, when they are required by 
the President or by the heads of the 



other executive departments, on 
questions of law arising in the 
administration of their respective 
departments ; he appears in the Su- 
preme Court of the United States in 
cases of especial gravity and im- 
portance ; he exercises a general 
superintendence and direction over 
United States attorneys and mar- 
shals in all judicial districts in the 
States and Territories ; and he pro- 
vides special counsel for the United 
States whenever required by any 
department of the Government. 



SOLICITOR GENERAL 



The Solicitor General assists the 
Attorney General in the perform- 
ance of his general duties, and, by 
special provision of law, in case of 
a vacancy in the office of the Attor- 
ney General, or of his absence or 
disability, exercises all those duties. 
Under the direction of the Attorney 
General, he has general charge of 
the business of the Government in 
the Supreme Court of the United 
States, and is assisted in the conduct 
and argument of cases therein by 
the Assistant Attorneys General. He 
also, with the approval of the Attor- 
ney General, prepares opinions ren- 



dered to the President and the heads 
of the executive departments, and 
confers with and directs the law 
officers of the Government through- 
out the country in the performance 
of their duties. When the Attorney 
General so directs, any case in 
which the United States is inter- 
ested, in any court of the United 
States, may be conducted and ar- 
gued by the Solicitor General ; and 
he may be sent by the Attorney 
General to attend to the interests 
of the United States in any State 
court, or elsewhere. Performs such 
other duties as may be required. 



THE ASSISTANT TO THE ATTORNEY GENERAL 



The Assistant to the Attorney 
General has special charge of all 
suits and other matters arising un- 
der the Federal anti-trust and inter- 



state-commerce laws, and performs 
such other duties as may be required 
of him. from time to time, by the 
Attorney General. 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



mi > 



OUB COl NTRY AND ITS |;i;sni i;i'i;s 



ASSISTANT ATTORNEYS GENERAL 



The several Assistant Attorneys 
General assist the Attorney General 
in the performance of his duties. 
They assist in the argument of eases 
in the Supreme Court and in the 
preparation of legal opinions. 

Five Assistant Attorneys General 
are located in the main department 
building at 1435 K Street, and. iii 
addition to their general duties, par- 
ticular subjects are assigned to them 
by the Attorney General for the 
transaction of business arising there- 
under with United States attorneys. 
other departments, and private par- 
ties in Interest. 

The office of the Assistant Attor- 
ney General, including a number of 
assistant attorneys and clerks 
charged with defending suits in the 
Court of (Maims, is located at S 
Jackson Place. 



The Assistant Attorney General in 
charge of the interests of the Gov- 
ernment in all matters of reappraise- 
meat and classification of imported 
goods in litigation before the sev- 
eral hoards ot" United States General 
Appraisers and the Court of Cus- 
toms Appeals, is located at <'i41 
Washington Street. New York. 

The Assistant Attorneys General 
and the solicitors for the several 
executive departments exercise their 
functions under the supervision and 
control of the Attorney General. 
They an' the Solicitor for the I >e- 
partment of the Interior, the Solicitor 
for the Department of State, the 
Solicitor of the Treasury, the So- 
licitor of Internal Revenue, the 
Solicitor of the Department of Com- 
merce, and the Solicitor of the 
Department of Labor. 



PUBLIC LANDS PIVISloX 



To it are assigned all suits and 
proceedings concerning the enforce- 
ment of the public-land law, includ- 



ing all suits or proceedings to set 
aside conveyances of allotted public 

lands. 



CHIEF CLERK 



The chief clerk, under the direction 
of tin' Attorney General, lias general 
supervision of the clerks and employees; 
the consideration < >r applications fur 
leave of absence; the direction of the 
force "f laborers, charwomen and watch- 
men : superintends all buildings occu- 
pied by the department in Washington; 
lias charge of the horses, wagons anil 
carriages employed; has supervision of 



tiic Division of Mails and Files; the 
purchase and distribution of supplies 
for the department and the United 
States courts; the expenditure of the 
appropriations for contingent expenses 
and rents; the consideration of requisi- 
tions upon the Public Printer for print- 
ing and binding; and supervision of the 
preparation of the annual report and 
the estimates "t" the department. 



DISBURSING CLERK 



The disbursing clerk disburses from 
about forty appropriations, under the 

direction of the Attorney General, In- 
cluding the salaries of the Justices of 

the Supreme Court of the United States 

and the indues of the other United 
states courts located in the District of 
Columbia; the salaries id" the officials 
of the department proper, as well as 



the salaries and expenses of certain 
employees stationed in the field; the 
contingent expenses of the department: 
supplies for United states courts: and 
other special and miscellaneous appro- 
priations, lie is also authorized and 
directed by law to withhold and account 
for the income tax as it may apph to 

federal employees. 



SUPERINTENDENT OF PRISONS 



The superintendent of prisons has 
charge, under the direction of the Attor 
ni'.v General, of all matters relating to 
United Slates prisons and prisoners, 
including the support of such prisoners 

in both state and Federal penitentiaries, 



in reform schools and in county jails. 
He has supervision over the construc- 
tion work in progress at United States 
penal institution-. 

The superintendent of prisons is pres- 
ident of the boards of parole for the 



DEPARTMENT OE JUSTICE 521 

United States penitentiaries and presi- institution which, from time to time, 

dent of the boards of parole for United may be used for the confinement of 

States prisoners in each State or county United States prisoners. 

APPOINTMENT CLERK 

The appointment clerk has charge of and employees of the department in 

all matters relating to applications, Washington, and for United States 

recommendations, and appointments, in- judges, attorneys, and marshals and 

eluding certifications by the Civil Serv- other officers under the department. He 

ice Commission ; conducts correspondence also compiles the Register of the Depart- 

pertaining thereto : prepares nominations ment of Justice and matter relating 

sent to the Senate ; prepares commis- to that department for the Official 

sions and appointments for the officers Register of the United States. 

ATTORNEY IN CHARGE OF PARDONS 

The attorney in charge of pardons the Secretary of War and the Secre- 
taires charge of all applications for Ex- tary of the Navy, respectively; of the 
ecutive clemency, except those in Army briefing of the cases and the correspond- 
and Navy cases, these being referred to ence in relation to them. 

ATTORNEY IN CHARGE OF TITLES 

The attorney in charge of titles pre- growing out of the same. He has charge 

pares opinions" upon the title to lands of all proceedings to acquire land under 

belonging to or sought to be acquired eminent domain, and conducts all the 

by the Government for public purposes correspondence relating to the above 

and opinions upon all legal matters matters. 

CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS 

The Chief of the Division of Accounts court accommodations ; and the advance- 
has charge of the examination or audit ment of funds to United States mar- 
of all accounts payable from appropria- shals ; also matters relating to the ap- 
tions for expenses of the Department of pointment of office and field deputy mar- 
Justice and the courts of the United shals are in charge of the chief of this 
States. Accounts of United States mar- division. . 
shals, attorneys, clerks, and commission- Statistical information published in 
ers are examined, recorded, and trans- the annual report of the Attorney Gen- 
mitted to the auditor; while other ac- eral showing the business transacted in 
counts are recorded, audited, and trans- the courts of the United States, bank- 
mitted to the disbursing clerk for pay- ruptcy statistics, and the various re- 
ment, under recent legislation. ports required by law pertaining to ex- 
Authorization of court expenses, in- penditures under appropriations for the 
eluding items for office expenses and courts and the various divisions ot 
clerical assistants for clerks of United the department are also compiled in 
States courts ; the approval of leases of this division. 

CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF INVESTIGATION 

The Chief of the Division of Investi- compensation or expenses are paid from 
gation has general supervision of the the appropriation "Detection and prose- 
examination of the offices and records cution of crimes," and who are employed 
of the Federal court officials throughout for the purpose of collecting evidence 
the United States, and directs the work or of making investigations or examma- 
of all the examiners, special agents, and tions of any kind for this department 
accountants of the department, whose or the officers thereof. 

LIBRARIAN 

The librarian has general charge and of books to be purchased for the library, 

supervision of the library. He is a mem- directs the cataloguing, and co-operates 

ber of the committee for the selection generally in the service of the library. 



CHAPTER IX. 
POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT* 



POSTMASTER GENERAL 



THE Postmaster General is the 
executive head Of the Federal 
Postal Service, lie appoints all 
otlicers and employees <>f the Post I >f- 
fice Department except the four As- 
sistant Postmasters General and the 
purchasing agent, who are Presiden- 
tial appointees. With the exception of 
postmasters of the Qrst, second and 
third classes, who are likewise Pres- 
idential appointees, he appoints all 



post masters and all other officers 
and employees of the service at 
large. Subject to the approval of 
the President, he makes postal 
treaties with foreign Governments. 
He promulgates all rules and regu- 
lations; superintends generally the 
business of the department, and 
executes all laws relative to the 
postal service. .Much information is 
contained in his annual report. 



CHIEF CLERK 



The chief clerk of the Post oiliee De- 
part im-iit Is charged with tin- general 
superintendence and assignment of the 
clerical and subclerical forces of the 
department and the consideration of ap- 
plications for leave of absence for such 
employees; the supervision Qf the prep 
aratie.ii of estimates of appropriations 
for the departmental and postal service: 
of advertising; the supervision of requisi- 
tions upon the Treasury and the ex- 
penditure of the appropriations for the 
departmental service; the keeping of the 
journals and order I ks ; the furnish- 
ing of stationery supplies for the de- 
partmental service; tile consideration 
and signing of requisitions upon the 
Public Printer for the printing and bind 
lug required In the Postal Service and the 



department, and receiving, and inspect- 
ing on receipt, of blanks required in the 
Post Office Department; the preparation 
of contracts and general superintendence 
of the publication and distribution of 
the Official Postal Guide; the fixing of 
rates, subject to the approval of the 
Postmaster General, for the transmission 
of Government tele-rams; the miscel- 
laneous business corresponden f the 

Postmaster General's otlice. and miscel- 
laneous correspondence of the depart- 
ment not assigned to other otlice-; the 
care of the department and other build- 
ings used iii connection therewith, and 
Of all furniture and public property 
therein ; and the performance of such 
other duties as may he required by the 
Postmaster General. 



SOLICITOR FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 



The solicitor is charged with the duty 
giving opinions to the Postmaster 

i ,, Qeral and the heads of the several 

offices of the department upon questions 
w arising upon the construction of 
the postal laws and regulations, or other- 
wise, in the course of business In the 
Postal Service; with the consideration 
submission (with advice) to the 
Postmaster General of all claims ol post- 
masters for losses by tire, burglary, or 
other unavoidable casualty, and ol all 



certifications by the Auditor for the 
Post Office Department of cases of pro- 
posed compromise of liabilities to the 

United States and of the remission of 
lines, penalties, and forfeitures under 
the statute-; with the giving of advice 
when desired in the preparation of cor 
respondence with the Department of 
Justice and other departments. Includ- 
ing the Court of Claims. Involving unc- 
tion- of law or relating to prosecutions 
or suits affecting or arising out of the 



There is a special chapter on tin' Posl Office, page 161. 
Copyright by Munn & <'■>., Inc. 



POST OFF ICE DEPARTMENT 



52^ 



Tostal Service, and with assisting when 
desired in the prosecution or defense of 
such cases, and the maintenance of suit- 
able records of opinions rendered affect- 
ing the Post Office Department and the 
Postal Service ; and with the considera- 
tion of applications for pardon . for 
crimes committed against the postal 
laws which may be referred to the de- 
partment ; with the preparation and sub- 
mission (with advice) to the Postmaster 
General of all appeals to him from the 
heads of the offices of the department 
depending upon questions of law ; with 
the determining of questions as to the 
delivery of mail the ownership of which 



is in dispute ; with the hearing and con- 
sideration of cases relating to lotteries 
and the misuse of the mails in further- 
ance of schemes to defraud the public ; 
with the consideration of all questions 
relating to the mailability of alleged in- 
decent, obscene, scurrilous, or defama- 
tory matter ; with determining the legal 
adaptability of securities offered by 
banks to secure postal savings deposits ; 
with the examining and, when neces- 
sary, drafting of all contracts of the 
department ; and with such other like 
duties as may from time to time be 
required of him by the Postmaster 
General. 



PURCHASING AGENT 



The purchasing agent supervises the 
purchase of all supplies both for the 
Post Office Department proper and for 
all branches of the Postal Service. He 
reviews all requisitions and authoriza- 
tions for supplies and, if proper, honors 
the same. He passes upon the suffi- 
ciency and propriety of all specifica- 



tions for proposals for supplies ; pre- 
pares the advertisements and forms for 
proposals necessary to the making of 
contracts for supplies ; reviews the re- 
ports of the committees on awards and 
recommends to the Postmaster General 
such action as in his judgment should 
be taken thereon. 



CHIEF INSPECTOR 



The chief inspector supervises the 
work of post office inspectors and of the 
division of post office inspectors. To 
him is charged the preparation and issue 
of all cases for investigation, all mat- 
ters relating to depredations upon the 
mails and losses therein, the custody of 
money and property collected or received 



by inspectors, and the restoration there- 
of to the proper parties or owners, and 
the consideration and adjustment of ac- 
counts of inspectors for salary and ex- 
penses. To his office are referred all 
complaints of losses or irregularities in 
the mails and all reported violations 
of the postal laws. 



FIRST ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL 



The First Assistant Postmaster 
General has charge of the following 
divisions, to which are assigned the 
duties specified : 

Post Office Service. — The organ- 
ization of post offices, salaries of 
postmasters, the appointment and 
salaries of assistant postmasters, 
supervisory officers, clerks, and city 
letter carriers, authorization of new 
or changes in existing service on 
pneumatic tube routes, and Govern- 
ment-owned automobile routes, es 
tablishment of mail messenger and 
regulation, screen, or other wagon 
service, the performance of service 
by contractors on such routes and 
complaints concerning the same, 
Government-owned automobile serv- 
ice, the establishment, maintenance 
and extension of city delivery-and- 
collection service, and all matters 
concerning special delivery service. 
Allowances for rent, light, fuel, clerk 



hire, labor incident to cleaning post 
offices, telephone rental, water rental, 
laundering, towel service, and mis 
cellaneous service items. 

Postmasters' Appointments. — The 
appointment of a postmaster, to post- 
masters' bonds and commissions. 
bonds of all employees in post offices 
except rural carriers and village de- 
livery carriers, leave of absence of 
postmasters, and the establishment, 
discontinuance, or change of site, of 
a fourth-class post office. 

Dead Letters. — The treatment of 
all unmailable and undelivered mail 
matter which is sent to it for dis- 
position ; the examination and for- 
warding or return of all letters which 
have failed of delivery ; the inspec- 
tion and return to the country of 
origin of undelivered foreign mat- 
ter ; recording and restoration to 
owners of letters and parcels which 
contain valuable inclosures ; care and 



524 



01 I! COl NTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



disposition of all money, negotiable correspondence, l>"tli foreign and 
paper, and other valuable articles domestic relating to these sub- 
found in undelivered matter and jects. 

SECOND ASSISTANT 1'OSTMASTER GENERAL 

foreign mails; the preparation of 
postal conventions (except those rel- 
ative to the money-order system) 
and the regulations for their execu- 
tion, as well as the consideration of 
the questions arising under them and 
with the preparation of all corre- 
spondence relative thereto. Also has 
supervision of the ocean mail ser- 
vice, including the adjustment of 
accounts with steamship companies 
tor the transportation of mails to 
foreign count ries. 

Railway Mail Service. — Is charged 
with the supervision of the Railway 
Mail Service and railway postal 
clerks; prepares cases for the ap- 
pointment, removal, promotion, and 
reduction of said clerks; conducts 
correspondence and issues orders 
relative to the moving of the mails 
on railroad trains; has charge of 
the dispatch and distribution of 
mail matter in railway postal cars 
and post offices; conducts the weigh- 
ing of mails; and attends to all 
correspondence relative to these 
matters. 

OSTMASTER GENERAL 

Stamps. — The supervision of the 

manufacture and issuance to post- 
masters of postage stamps, stamp 
hooks, stamped envelopes, newspa- 
per wrappers, postal cards, and pos- 
tal saving stamps and cards by the 
various contractors: and the keep- 
in- of the accounts and records of 
these transactions. The receipt and 
disposition of damaged and unsala- 
ble Stamped paper returned by post- 
masters for redemption and credit. 

Mi, mil Orders. — The supervision 
and management of the money-order 
service, both domestic and interna- 
tional; the preparation of conven- 
tions for the exchange of money or- 
ders with foreign countries. 

Registered Kails. The supervision 
and management of the registry, in- 



The Second Assistant Postmaster 
General has charge of the authoriza- 
tion of new or changes in existing 
steamboat, aviation and Alaska star 

route services. 

Rail/nil/ Adjustments. — Has charge 
of the preparation of cases author- 
izing the transportation of mails by 
railroads; the establishment of rail- 
way postal car service and changes 
in existing service; prepares orders 
and instructions for the weighing 
of the mails on railroads; receives 
and tabulates the returns and com- 
putes basis of pay therefrom; pre- 
pares cases for adjustment of allow- 
ances to railroads for carrying the 
mails, and for postal cars; author- 
izes expenditures and credits for the 
weighing of the mails, and transpor- 
tation by freight or express of postal 
cards, stamped envelopes, periodical 
mail matter and mail equipment; 
and prepares all correspondence rela- 
tive to these matters. 

Foreign Mail*. Is charged with 
the duty of arranging all details con- 
nected with the transportation of 

THIRD ASSISTANT I 

The Third Assistant Postmaster 
General has charge of the following 
divisions, to which are assigned the 
duties specified : 

Finance. — The financial opera- 
tions, including the collection and 
deposit of postal revenues; the dis- 
tribution of postal funds among the 
several depositaries so as to equal- 
ize, as far as possible, receipts and 
expenditures in the same section; 
the payment by warrant of all ac- 
counts settled by the auditor; the 
receipt and disposition of all moneys 
coming directly to the department; 
and the keeping of books of account 
showing the fiscal operations of the 
postal and money-order services and 
the regulation of box rents and key 
depo 



POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 



suranee, and eollect-on-delivery ser- 
vices ; the establishment and con- 
trol of all registry dispatches and 
exchanges ; the instruction of post- 
masters and the furnishing of in- 
formation in relation to these mat- 
ters ; and the consideration of all 
claims for indemnity for lost regis- 
tered, insured, and C. O. D. mail. 

Classification.— The general con- 
trol of all business relating to the 
classification of domestic mail mat- 
ter and the rates of postage thereon, 
including the determination of the 
admissibility of publications to the 
second class of mail matter, their 
right to continue in that class, and 
the instruction of postmasters rela- 



tive thereto; also the use of penalty 
envelopes, the franking privilege, 
and the limit of weight and size 
of mail matter. 

Postal Savings. — The conduct and 
management of the administrative 
office of the postal savings system 
at Washington ; the selection and 
designation of post offices as postal 
savings depository offices and the 
supervision of the business trans- 
acted at such offices ; the manage- 
ment and investment of postal sav- 
ings funds as the agent of the board 
of trustees; and the administrative 
examination of accounts of post- 
masters and other fiscal agents of 
the system. 



FOURTH ASSISTANT POSTM ASTER GENERAL 



This bureau embraces the Divi- 
sion of Rural Mails, with horse- 
drawn and motor vehicle service, 
and the star route service, the Divi- 
sion of Equipment and Supplies, 
and Village Delivery. All requests 
for rural service, star route service 
or extensions of service, the appoint- 
ment and discipline of rural car- 
riers, and the preparation of all ad- 
vertisements inviting proposals for 
star routes, and making awards and 
contracts, making rural delivery 
maps and distributing parcel post 
maps and guides, and all supplies 
which postmasters need in the con- 
duct of postal business, including 
office appliances of every descrip- 
tion, and all correspondence relating 
thereto, belong to the duties of this 
office. 

The manufacturing enterprises of 
the Post Office Department, consist- 



ing of the mail bag repair shop and 
the lock shop, are also under the 
direction of the Fourth Assistant. 
All repairs, and the manufacture of 
new sacks and pouches when neces- 
sity requires, the manufacture of all 
locks and repair of same, and all 
mechanical devices used in the Rail- 
way Mail Service and post offices, 
which can be furnished from the 
lock shop, as well as new mechan- 
ical designs and improvements for 
the service, are included. The ex- 
perimental and research work con- 
nected with such manufacturing en- 
terprises, made necessary to meet 
new and changing conditions, deter- 
mining the needs of the service as 
to style and character of equipment, 
and assure economy in expenditures, 
is directly under the personal super- 
vision and control of the head of this 
bureau. 



CHAPTER X. 



DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY* 



SECRETARY OF THE NAVY 



THE Secretary of the Navy per- 
forins such duties as the Presi- 
dent of the United states, who 
is Commander in Chief, may assign 



him, and has the general superin- 
tendence of construction, manning, 
armament, equipment, and employ- 
ment of vessels of war. 



ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE NAVY 



The Assistant Secretary of the 
Navy performs such duties as may 



be prescribed by the Secretary of 

the Navy or required by law. 



CHIEF CLERK 



The chief clerk has general charge 
of the records and correspondence 
of the Secretary's office, and per- 



forms such other duties as may be 
assigned to him by the Secretary of 
the Navy. 



OFFICE OF NAVAL OPERATIONS 



The Office of Naval Operations 
was established by Act of Con- 
gress of March ::. P.) IT,. That act 
provided that the Chief of Naval 
Operations should be selected from 
an otlicer of the line of the Navy 
not below the raid; of captain and 
that while holding this position he 
should have the rank, title and emol- 
uments of a rear admiral. The act 
of August 20. 1916, provides that 
while so serving the Chief of Naval 
Operations shall have the rank and 
title of admiral, to take rank next 
after the admiral of the Navy and 
shall receive the pay of $10,000 per 
annum and no allowances. lie is 
appointed for a period of four years. 

The Chief of Naval Operations is 
charged, under the direction of the 
Secretary of the Xavy, with the op- 
erations of the fleet and with the 
preparation and readiness of plans 
for its use in war. This Includes 



the direction of the Naval War Col- 
lege, the Office of Naval Intelligence, 
inspections, gunnery exercises and 
engineering performances, the oper- 
ation of the radio service and of 
other systems of communication, the 
operations of the aeronautic service, 
of mines and mining, of the naval 
districts. Naval Militia, and of the 
Coast Guard when operating with 
the Navy; the direction of ail strat- 
egic and tactical matters, organiza- 
tion, maneuvers, target practice, 
drills and exercises, and of the train- 
ing of the fleet for war: and the 
preparation, revision and enforce- 
ment of all tactics, drill hooks, sig- 
nal codes and cipher codes. The 
orders issued by the Chief of Naval 
Operations in the performance of 
his duties are considered as eman- 
ating from the Secretary of the Navy 
and have full force and effect as 
such. 



♦There is a special chapter on ••'i'lo> New Navy," page 281. 
Copyright by Mann & Co., Inc. 



DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 



527 



The Chief of Naval Operations 
from time to time witnesses the op- 
erations of the fleet as an observer. 

He has two principal senior as- 
sistants, officers not below the grade 



of captain, one as assistant for oper- 
ations and the other as assistant for 
material. 

He is ex-officio a member of the 
General Board. 



COMMUNICATIONS OFFICE 



The Communications Office under 
the direction of the Chief of Naval 
Operations handles all the dispatch 
work of the Navy Department 
(radio, telegraph, cable, and tele- 
phone). A commissioned officer is 
on watch in the Communications Of- 
fice at all times, night and day, 
and is responsible for the routing, 
coding, and decoding of all dis- 
patches. He is responsible for the 
proper delivery of all received of- 
ficial dispatches. 



The Assistant Communications Of- 
ficer on watch keeps himself in- 
formed of the general and special 
situations in order that he may thor- 
oughly understand the bearing of 
dispatches received outside of de- 
partmental hours, and he is respon- 
sible that dispatches of importance 
requiring immediate action are com- 
municated as soon as possible to the 
proper officer. 

The Arlington Radio Station is 
operated from this office. 



OFFICE OF NAVAL INTELLIGENCE 



The Office of Naval Intelligence 
is charged with the collection and 
dissemination of such technical in- 
formation at home and abroad as 
will be useful to the Chief of Naval 



Operations and to the various bur- 
eaus of the Navy Department in the 
formulation of plans for war and in 
the development of personnel and 
materiel. 



OFFICE OF GUNNERY EXERCISES AND ENGINEERING PERFORMANCES 



The Office of Gunnery Exercises 
and Engineering performances is 
charged with the duties, under the 
Chief of Naval Operations, of formu- 
lating the rules for all forms of 
gunnery exercises and steaming per- 
formances ; computing, compiling, 



and publishing in confidential form 
the results and records of these com- 
petitions ; the award of prizes, 
trophies, and commendatory letters 
in connection therewith, these com- 
petitions being the means to the 
end ; i.. e., battle efficiency. 



NAVAL COMMUNICATION SERVICE 



The Office of Director of Naval 
Communications is established under 
the Chief of Naval Operations. The 
Director of Naval Communications 
is charged with matters pertaining 
to the operation of naval radio sta- 
tions ashore, and in addition is 
charged with the duties in connec- 
tion with and is responsible for the 
efficient, handling of all telegraph, 
telephone and cable and generally 
all dispatch work between the Navy 
Department and the fleet, and 
throughout the naval service out- 
side the fleet. In his administration 
of the foregoing he has general 



charge of the operation, organiza- 
tion, and administration of the Com- 
munication Service. He co-operates 
with officials designated by the Sec- 
retary of Commerce in reference to 
location of proposed commercial sta- 
tions, the licensing of operators, the 
control of the operation of commer- 
cial stations under the law, and the 
assignment of wave lengths for use 
by commercial stations which wall 
comply with the law and thereby 
prevent possible interference with 
the organization and opera- 
tion of the Naval Communication 
Service, 



f.L'N 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



DIVISION OP NAVAL MIUTIA AFFAIRS 



Since the passage of the Naval 
Militia Act of February if,, 1914, 
the activities of the Naval Militia 
insofar as they concern the Fed- 
eral Government have come under 
the Navy Department. All duties in 
connection with the instruction and 
training of the Naval Militia and of 
vessels loaned for their use are un- 
der the control of the Chief of Naval 
Operations. This part of the activ- 
ities of the office of the Chief of 
Operations is directly in the hands 
of the Division of Naval Militia Af- 
fairs. This division is. in effect, a 
complete Navy Department for the 
Naval Militia insofar as the Fed- 
eral Government is concerned. The 
Naval Militia Act of February 16, 
1914, provided that the Secretary of 
the Navy is authorized to so organ- 
ize, arm, uniform, equip, and train 
the Naval Militia that it may be 
eligible to be called forth by the 
President of the United States to 
serve the United States in the event 
of war, actual or threatened, with 
any foreign nation. In consequence 
of this act the Secretary of the Navy 
has defined the units, the number 
and rank of officers, and the number 
and rates of petty officers and en- 
listed men of all Naval Militia or- 
ganizations. The Division of Naval 
Militia Affairs has laid down a 
standard of professional and physi- 
cal examinations for all grades and 
ranks in the Naval Militia in order 



that such officers and men may be 
mustered into service without fur- 
ther appointment, enlistment or ex- 
aniinal inn. 

The division also has control of 
regulations and contracts under 
which vessels of the Navy are loaned 
to the Naval Militia for their train- 
ing and instruction. Officers are ap- 
pointed to make annual inspections 
of Naval Militia organization. Rules 
and regulations covering the details 
of training have also been laid down 
by the division to cover instruction 
for the Naval Militia given by in- 
spector-instructors, officers of the 
regular Navy detailed for this spe- 
cific duty. The division also con- 
ducts cruises for instruction of the 
Naval Militia on vessels of the reg- 
ular Navy, vessels loaned to the 
State, aeronautic encampments and 
Marine Corps encampments. All mat- 
ters pertaining to the Naval Militia 
under existing laws and regulations 
come within the jurisdiction of the 
Division of Naval Militia Affairs. 
The records of officers and men, 
cruises and all like duties of the 
Naval Militia are kept in the D. N. 
M. A. In the event of the mustering 
into the Federal service of the Naval 
Militia for active duty the division 
from its records of officers and men 
would recommend the detail of such 
officers and men and their orders 
would be based on such recommenda- 
tions. 



BUREAU OF 

The duties of the Bureau of Navi- 
gation comprise the issue, record and 
enforcement of the orders of the 
secretary to the individual officers of 
the Navy ; the training and educa- 
tion of line officers and of enlisted 
men (except of the Hospital Corps) 
at schools and stations and in ves- 
sels maintained for that purpose; 
the upkeep and operation of the 
Naval Academy, of technical schools 
for line officers, of the apprentice- 
seamen establishments, of schools 
for the technical education of eu- 



NAVIGATION 
listed men, and of the naval home at 
Philadelphia, Pa.; the upkeep and 

the payment of the operating ex- 
penses of the Naval War College; 
the enlistment, assignment to duty, 
and discharge of enlisted persons. 

(2) It has under its direction all 
rendezvous and receiving ships, and 
provides transportation for all en- 
listed persons under its cognizance. 

(3) It establishes the comple- 
ments of all ships in commission. 

(4) It keeps the records of service 
of all Officers and men. and prepares 



DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 



52i) 



an annual Navy Register for pub- 
lication, embodying therein data as 
to fleets, squadrons, and ships, which 
shall be furnished by the Chief of 
Naval Operations. To the end that 
it may be able to carry out the 
provisions of this paragraph, all 
communications to or from ships in 
commission relating to the personnel 
of such ships are forwarded through 
this bureau, whatever their origin 
may be. 

(5) It is charged with all matters 
pertaining to applications for ap- 
pointments and commissions in the 
Navy, and with the preparation of 
such appointments and commissions 
for signature. 

(6) It is charged with the prepar- 
ation, revision, and enforcement of 
all regulations governing uniform, 
and with the distribution of all or- 
ders and regulations of a general 
or circular character. 

(7) Questions of naval discipline, 
rewards, and punishments are sub- 
mitted by this bureau for the action 
of the Secretary of the Navy. The 
records of all general courts-martial 
and courts of inquiry involving the 
personnel of the Navy before final 
action are referred to this bureau 
for comment as to disciplinary fea- 
tures. 



(8) It receives and brings to the 
attention of the Secretary of the 
Navy all applications from officers 
for duty or leave. 

(9) It receives all reports of ser- 
vice performed by individual officers 
or men. 

(10) It is charged with the en- 
forcement of regulations and instruc- 
tions regarding naval ceremonies 
and naval etiquette. 

(11) It shall be charged with the 
upkeep and operation of the Hydro- 
graphic Office, the Naval Observa- 
tory, Nautical Almanac, and Com- 
pass offices ; with all that relates to 
the supply of ships with navigational 
outfits, including instruments, and 
with the maintenance and repair of 
the same; with the collection of 
foreign surveys, and with the publi- 
cation and supply of charts, sailing 
directions, and. nautical works, and 
the dissemination of nautical, hydro- 
graphic, and meteorological informa- 
tion to the Navy and mercantile 
marine. It shall also have charge 
of all ocean and lake surveys, and 
ships' and crews' libraries; it shall 
defray the expenses of pilotage of 
all ships in commission. 

(12) It shall be charged with the 
formation of the Naval Reserve and 
with all matters relating thereto. 



UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY 
Including the Nautical Almanac Office 




DOME OF OBSERVATORY 

Naval Observatory, Washington, P. C. 



The Naval Observatory furnishes 
the United States east of the 
Rocky Mountains with the standard 
time at noon, seventy-fifth merid- 
ian time, each day, both by tele- 
graph and radio, while the chronom- 
eter and time station at the Navy 
Yard, Mare Island, California, does 
the same for the country west of 
the Rockies. 

Through the Navy Radio Station 
the Observatory furnishes vessels 
navigating the north Atlantic Ocean 
and the Gulf of Mexico the standard 
time twice each day, at noon and 
10 P. M., and these radio time sig- 
nals are becoming increasingly used, 



530 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




THE MAIN BUILDING OF THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



by persons having receiving wireless 
sets throughout the country, in pref- 
erence to the telegraphic signals. 
Navigators, surveyors and astron- 



omers are kept supplied with the po 
sitions uf the heavenly bodies in a 
form for practical use through the 
American Ephemeris and Nautical 




TRANSMITTING CLOCKS, CHRONOGRAPHS AND SWITCHBOARDS USED IN THE 
V, S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY IN SENDING OUT THE TIME TO THE COUNTRY 



DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 



531 



Almanac, and the American Nauti- 
cal Almanac through the Nautical 
Almanac Office, which is a depart- 
ment of the Naval Observatory. 

In order to assist in furnishing 
data to keep the Almanac and Eph- 
emeris up to the highest attainable 
standard of accuracy continuous 
fundamental observations of the 
heavenly bodies are kept up at the 
Observatory. 

When a mariner, a surveyor or an 

THE BUREAU OF 

The duties of the Bureau of 
Yards and Docks comprise all that 
relate to the design and construc- 
tion of public works of the Navy. 
such as dry docks, marine rail- 
ways, building ways, harbor works, 
quay walls, piers, wharves, slips, 
dredging, landings, floating and sta- 



astronomer wishes to find his astron- 
omical position on the globe he does 
it by observations of the heavenly 
bodies, using the Nautical Almanac 
and a comparison of his local time 
with that of the Observatory. 

The Naval Observatory also super- 
vises the supplying of the vessels of 
the Navy and the Naval Air Service 
with all the instruments used for 
navigating them, which are numer- 
ous and interesting. 

YARDS AND DOCKS 
vehicles, horses, teams, subsistence, 
and necessary operators and team- 
sters in the navy yards. It pro- 
vides clerks for the office of the com- 
mandant, the captain of the yard, 
and public works officer. 

In general the work of the bureau 
is carried out by commissioned offi- 




COMPARING DECK CLOCKS FOE WAR VESSELS 



tionary cranes, power plants, coal- 
ing plants, heating, lighting, tele- 
phone, water, sewer and railroad 
systems : roads, walks and grounds ; 
bridges, radio towers, hospitals and 
all buildings for whatever purpose 
needed, under the Navy and Marine 
Corps. It has charge of all means 
of transportation, such as derricks, 
shears, locomotives, locomotive 
cranes, cars, motor trucks, and all 



cers of the Corps of Civil Engineers, 
United States Navy, whose major 
duties comprise the construction, re- 
pair and maintenance of the public 
works and utilities of the Navy. 

During the comparatively recent 
upbuilding of shore establishments 
of the Navy, large masonry dry 
docks have been completed at the 
navy yards, New York, Norfolk, 
Philadelphia and Charleston on the 



532 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



east coast, and at Mare Island and 
Puget Sound on the west coast. In 
addition a 1,000-foot dry dock is 
now under construction at the Naval 
Station, 1'earl Harbor, Hawaii. This 
dock when completed is estimated 
to cost approximately $4,986,500. To 
provide an entrance channel from 
the sea to the site of the dock and 
the naval station, extensive dredging 
operations were necessary, over $3,- 
000.000 having been expended for 
this purpose under a single contract. 
During the last ten years there have 
been expended under the cognizance 
of this bureau approximately $70,- 
500.000. 

The bureau is justly proud of its 
record in connection with the con- 
struction and operation of the cen- 
tral power plants at the various 
navy yards, these central plants hav- 
ing been provided for by act of Con- 
gress in 1904, in order to avoid the 
great waste in connection with the 
operation of many separate plants 
at each yard. Fourteen such cen- 
tral power plants have been con- 
structed and equipped with the most 
modern apparatus. To give an idea 
as to their magnitude it may be 
stated that these plants produced 
during the fiscal year 1915 a total 
of approximately 50,000,000 kilowatt 
hours of electric power, O.OOO.OOO.ni it i 
cubic feet of compressed air, and 
3,000,000,000 pounds of steam. 

The rapid increase in the use of 
fuel oil as a source of power for 
ships has led to the construction of 
extensive fuel oil storage plants, 
some seven plants having been com- 
pleted, with many others contem- 
plated. The present capacity of 
these plants is npproximatelv 30,- 
000,000 gallons of oil, which will 
probably lie increased to 150,000,000 
gallons. These plants are equipped 
with powerful pumps capable Of de- 
livering heavy oils from tanks to 
ships at the high rate of 1,000 gal- 



lons per minute. The tanks are 
equipped with automatically con- 
trolled fire systems, which provide 
in case of fire a blanket of inert 
pis in the form of foam over the 
surface of the oil. 

The bureau has had charge of 
the design and construction of radio 
towers and other public works con- 
nected with the development of the 
high power radio stations of the 
Navy. The location of these sta- 
tions is shown on the Military-Naval 
.Map. The first of these stations to 
be completed was that at Arlington, 
Virginia, others have followed at 
Colon and Balboa on the Isthmus; 
Chicago, Illinois; Chelsea. Massachu- 
setts; Washington, I». C. : Key West, 
Florida: New Orleans, Louisiana; 
Point Isabel, Texas: Ouantanamo, 
Cuba; Cordova. Alaska: Keyport, 
Washington; San Diego, California: 
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii: Island of 
Guam : Cavite, P. I. The stations 
in Hawaii have been in telephonic 
communication by wireless with the 
radio station at Arlington. Virginia. 

This bureau has designed and con- 
structed practically all of the im- 
portant graving docks in the Fnited 
States. Most of these docks have 
been built by and for the Navy. It 
has, by arrangements made between 
the Commonwealth of Massachusetts 
and the Navy Department, designed 
and is supervising the construction 
of the State Graving Docks in Bos- 
ton. It will also give general super- 
vision to the graving dock to be 
constructed by the Union Iron 
Works in San Francisco. California. 

A member of the Corps of Civil 
Engineers of the Navy has been 
connected with the construction of 
the Panama Canal as Commissioner 
and also Engineer of Terminal Con- 
struction. This bureau has been 
represented by one of its officers on 
the International Board of Consult- 
ing Engineers. 



BUHKAC OK OUDXANCE 

The Bureau of Ordnance of the the design and manufacture of all 
Navy Department is charged with guns, gnu carriages, ammunition, 



DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 



mines, torpedoes, and explosives 
used by the Navy Department. 
It has under its cognizance the 
Gun Factory at Washington, D. C, 
the Naval Proving Ground at 
Indian Head, Md., and the Tor- 
pedo Station at Newport, R. I., 
besides all of the magazines and 
ammunition depots pertaining to 
the Navy. 

The duties of the Bureau of Ord- 
nance comprise all that relates to 
the upkeep, repair and operation of 
the torpedo station, naval proving 
ground, and magazines on shore, to 
the manufacture of offensive and 
defensive arms and apparatus (in- 
cluding torpedoes and armor), all 
ammunition and war explosives. It 
requires for or manufactures all ma- 
chinery, apparatus, equipment, ma- 
terial and supplies required by or 
for use with the above. 

It determines the interior dimen- 
sions of revolving turrets and their 
requirements as regards rotation. 

As the work proceeds it inspects 
the installation of the permanent 
fixtures of the armament and its 
accessories on board ship, and the 
method of stowing, handling, and 
transporting ammunition and tor- 
pedoes, all of which work must be 
performed to its satisfaction. It 



designs and constructs all turret 
ammunition hoists, determines the 
requirements of all ammunition 
hoists and the method of con- 
struction of armories and ammu- 
nition rooms on shipboard, and. 
in conjunction with the Bureau of 
Construction and Repair, determines 
upon their location and that of all 
ammunition hoists outside of tur- 
rets. It installs all parts of the 
armament and its accessories which 
are not permanently attached to 
any portion of the structure of the 
hull, excepting turret guns, turret 
mounts, and ammunition hoists, and 
such other mounts as require simul- 
taneous structural work in connec- 
tion with installation or removal. 
It confers with the Bureau of Con- 
struction and Repair respecting the 
arrangements for centering the tur- 
rets and the character of the roller 
paths and their supports. 

It has cognizance of all electrically 
operated ammunition hoists, ram- 
mers and gun-elevating gear which 
are in turrets ; of electric training 
and elevating gear for gun mounts 
not in turrets; of electrically opera- 
ted air compressors for charging tor- 
pedoes ; and of all range finders and 
battle order and range transmitters 
and indicators. 



BUREAU OP CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 



The head of this Bureau is the 
Chief Constructor, who is an offi- 
cer of the Construction Corps of 
the Navy and is appointed by the 
President and confirmed by the 
Senate for a four-year term. By 
the authority of statute law orders 
issued by him in regard to the work 
of this bureau have the same force 
and effect as though issued by the 
Secretary of the Navy. 

The Chief Constructor is respon- 
sible for the general designs of all 
vessels of the Navy and for incor- 
porating therein the military char- 
acteristics approved by the Secre- 
tary of the Navy and for making 
the necessary provision in the de- 
sign and in the completed ship for 



the propelling machinery, ordnance 
and other items under the cognizance 
of other bureaus of the Navy De- 
partment. He is responsible for the 
detail design and construction of 
ships' hulls, their strength and 
stability, hull auxiliaries, fittings 
and equipage. In connection with 
the same parts he is charged with 
their inspection in ships building by 
private contract, with their construc- 
tion in ships building in navy yards, 
with their repair in ships in com- 
mission, with their maintenance 
and preservation in ships out of com- 
mission, and with the preparation of 
specifications for and the inspection 
of all material necessary for these 
various purposes. 



::i 



01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



in the execution of these duties he penditure of all appropriations made 
is responsible for the proper ex- by Congress for these purposes. 



The Bureau of Steam Engineor- 
Ing is charged with the responsi- 
bility for the design, the construc- 
tion, and the maintenance in good 
condition of the propelling machin- 
ery of vessels of the Navy: of their 
electric light and power equipment, 
except of motors installed by other 
bureaus; of radio stations and their 
equipment on shore and of the radio 
equipment afloat; of heating and re- 



BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING 

It is specifically charged with the 
design, supply, installation, main- 
tenance, .'111(1 repair of all means of 
interior and exterior electric signal 
communications (except range find- 
ers and battle-order and range trans- 
mitters and indicators i, and of all 
electrical appliances of whatsoever 
nature on board naval vessels, ex- 
cept motors and their controlling 
apparatus used to operate the ma- 



frigerating apparatus; of distillim 
apparatus; of the interior communi- 
cation system, comprising tele- 
phones, call bells, etc., and of elec- 
tric signaling apparatus; of aero- 
plane motors, motors for small 
boats, and for all steam connections 
in the ship. 

In carrying out this work it has 
indirect control of the shops of the 
machinery division in navy yards 
and has supervision and control of 
the Engineering Experiment Station 
at Annapolis, the Aeronautic Motor 
Laboratory at Washington and of 
laboratories for other purposes in 
navy yards, and of the fuel oil test- 
ing plant at Philadelphia. 

It has cognizance of the entire 
svstein of interior communications. 



chinery belonging to other bureaus. 

It has charge of the design, manu- 
facture, installation, maintenance. 
repair, and operation of wireless 
telegraph outfits on board ship and 
of wireless telegraph outfits and 
stations on shore. (See "Radio 
Service. - ' p. 528. ) 

It has charge of the design, manu- 
facture, installation, maintenance, 
repair, and operation of aeroplane 
motors and propellers and their 
attachments. 

It has supervision and control of 
the Engineering Experiment Station. 

It designs the various shops at 
navy yards and stations where its 
own work is executed, SO far as 
their internal arrangements are con- 
cerned. 



BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY 



The Medical Department of the 
Navy has charge <»f the well-being 
in health and disease of the per- 
sonnel of the Navy and Marine 
Corps, numbering now over 100,000. 
Not only is sickness cared for, 
hospital or sick-bay treatment pro- 
vided, necessary operative measures 
undertaken, but also those in sound 
health are safeguarded in life and 
limb as far as modern science can 
avail. 

To this end Surpreon General W. 
<". Braisted lias under him a Medical 
Corps authorized up to a total of 
over <;o<>. a Dental Corps, a Nurse 
<' ( irps. and a Hospital Corps of an 
authorized strength of over 3.000. 



In addition he has available for call 
Medical and Dental Reserve Corps 
composed of physicians and dentists 
in civil life who have patriotically 
offered their services in case of na- 
tional emergency. 

These forces are directed by the 
Surgeon General, as head of the Bu- 
reau of Medicine and Surgery. He 
has charge of the upkeep and opera- 
tion of all naval hospitals, number- 
ing at present eighteen, situated not 
only within the continental limits 
of the United states, but also iii our 
insular possessions. He has under 
consideration all questions concern- 
ing the health, the hygiene, and sani- 
tation of the service, ashore and 



DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 




U. S. NAVAL MEDICAL SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, B. C 



afloat. One or more medical officers 
are carried on all ships operating 
singly, and on flagships of destroyer 
and submarine flotillas. 

The Medical Corps in addition un- 
dertakes all physical examinations 
for the service at the many recruit- 
ing stations throughout the coun- 
try, and on board ships and at naval 
stations and yards. It passes pro- 
fessionally upon all applicants for 
enlistment or promotion in the Hos- 
pital Corps, and educates and super- 
vises the members of this corps dur- 
ing the entire tenure of service. To 
this end two excellent Hospital 
Corps Training Schools have been 



established, one at Newport, R. T., 
the other at San Francisco, Cal. 

The Surgeon General assigns. 
through the Bureau of Navigation, 
all of the personnel under his 
charge to their respective duties, 
keeping himself constantly in touch 
with all specially qualified in vari- 
ous professional lines. He also lias 
charge of the upkeep and operations 
of the three Naval Medical Supply 
Depots (Brooklyn, Mare Island and 
Canacao), medical laboratories, dis- 
pensaries, and technical schools for 
the Medical and Hospital Corps. The 
Naval Medical School, in connection 
with the Naval Hospital, Washiug- 




OPERATING ROOM OF THE U. S. HOSPITAL SHIP "SOLACE" 



536 



OL'R COT NTKY AND ITS RESOURCES 

l 




HOISTING A 



PATIENT ON 
"SOLACE" 



BOARD THE 



ton, 1). C. provides most valuable 
post-graduate courses, and labora- 
tory facilities for research and In- 
vestigation. 

one of the most valuable assets 
of the Medical Department is the 
Hospital Ship "Solace." attached to 
the Atlantic Fleet, and even more 
so will be the magnificent new hos- 
pital ship authorized bj the Sixty- 
fourth Congress. 

In addition to the many above en- 
umerated duties and responsibilities, 
the Surgeon General requisitions for 
all supplies, medicines, instruments. 
etc., used in the Medical Department 
of the Navy, and he has control of 
the preparation, reception, storage, 
care, custody, transfer, and issue of 
all supplies of every kind used in 
the Medical Department for its own 
purposes. 

And lastly, the numerous gallant 
activities on foreign shores which 
have made the name of the V. S. 
Marine Corps justly famous, are al- 
ways attended by their quotas of 
efficient, self-sacrificing, and beroic 
members of the Medical and Hospi- 
tal Corps of the U. S. Navy. 



bureau of Supplies and accounts 



The duties <>f the Bureau of Sup- 
plies and Accounts comprise all 
that pertains to the purchase, re- 
ceipt, care, issue and accounting 
for ;ill supplies and materials for 
the Navy, which include provisions, 
clothing, coal, oil and genera] sup- 
plies: the preparation of standard 
specifications for all supplies: the 
shipment thereof. Including trans- 
portation id' coal and fuel oil and 
the location of the sources of supply. 

They also comprise the audit of 
property returns; audit and payment 
of vouchers under contract : payment 
<>f traveling expenses, gratuity 



claims and allotments made by of- 
ficers and enlisted men. and pay- 
ments to the Naval Reserve; the 
recording of expenditures of money 
under the several appropriations and 
the distribution of costs to the vari- 
ous activities of the Naval estab- 
lishment. This bureau also admin- 
isters the Commissary Department 
of the Navy and is responsible for 
procuring and issuing all food sup- 
plies to the enlisted men: it like- 
wise operates the i wo naval clothing 
factories where articles of uniform 
and clothing are manufactured for 
the men. 



HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE* 

The Hydrographic Office carries and navigational data from mar- 
on marine surveying in foreign iners, professional publications. Gov- 
waters; gathers hydrographic eminent officials, etc.. at home and 

•Tin' work of Oils (.nice is et' surh importance that a special illustrated chapter 
dealing in part with this subject will be found on page !-".». 



DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 



537 



abroad; prepares, prints, and issues 
navigational charts of foreign wa- 
ters to the Navy and other public 
services and sells them to the mer- 
chant marine and the public ; sim- 



ilarly with regard to books of sail- 
ing directions for foreign waters and 
manuals and tables for navigators, 
except that their printing is done at 
the Government Printing Office. 



OFFICE OF THE JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL 



The act of March 2, 1865, au- 
thorized the President to appoint 
an officer in the Navy Department 
to be Called "the Solicitor and 
Naval Judge Advocate General." 
The appointee pursuant to this 
act was carried on the Navy Regis- 
ter until INTO when the Depart- 
ment of Justice was established. 
The act establishing the Department 
of Justice (June 22, 1870) provided 
that "the Solicitor and Naval Judge 
Advocate General, who shall here- 
after be known as the Naval Solici- 
tor," should be transferred to the 
Department of Justice. The incum- 
bent's name was then dropped from 
the Navy Register and placed upon 
the rolls of the Department of Jus- 
tice. At his death in 1878 he was 
succeeded by an Acting Judge Ad- 
vocate General, whose office was in 
the Navy Department until June 8, 
1S80, when the office of the Judge 
Advocate General of the Navy, as 
a part of the Department of the 
Navy, was established. 

The duties of the Judge Advocate 
General of the Navy are set forth 
in detail in the United States Navy 
Regulations, 1913, as follows: 

"The duties of the Judge Advocate 
General of the Navy shall be to re- 
vise and report upon the legal fea- 
tures of and have recorded the pro- 
cee dings of all courts-martial, 
courts of inquiry, boards of investi- 
gation, inquest, and boards for the 
examination of officers for retire- 
ment and promotion in the naval 
service; to prepare charges and 
specifications for courts-martial, 
and the necessary orders convening 
courts-martial in cases where such 
courts are ordered by the Secretary 
of the Navy; to prepare court-mar- 
tial orders promulgating the final 
action of the reviewing authority in 



court-martial cases; to prepare the 
necessary orders convening courts of 
inquiry in cases where such courts 
are ordered by the Secretary of the 
Navy, and boards for the examina- 
tion of officers for promotion and re- 
tirement, and for the examination of 
candidates for appointment as com- 
missioned officers in the Navy other 
than midshipmen, and to conduct all 
official correspondence relating to 
such courts and boards. 

"It is also the duty of the Judge 
Advocate General to examine and 
report upon all questions relating to 
rank and precedence, to promotions 
and retirements, and to the validity 
of the proceedings in court-martial 
cases, all matters relating to the 
supervision and control of naval 
prisons and prisoners [disciplinary 
ships and detentioners] ; the removal 
of the mark of desertion ; the cor- 
rection , of records of service and 
reporting thereupon in the Regular 
or Volunteer Navy ; certification of 
discharge in true name; pardons; 
bills and resolutions introduced in 
Congress relating to the personnel 
and referred to the department for 
report, and the drafting and inter- 
pretation of statutes relating to the 
personnel; references to the Comp- 
troller of the Treasury with regard 
to pay and allowances of the per- 
sonnel : questions involving points of 
law concerning the personnel ; pro- 
ceedings in the civil courts in all 
cases concerning the personnel as 
such ; and to conduct the corre- 
spondence respecting the foregoing 
duties, including the preparation for 
submission to the Attorney General 
of all questions relating to subjects 
coming under his own cognizance 
which the Secretary of the Navy 
may direct to be so referred." 

The study of International Law 



53S 



OUB COl VI'KY AMi ITS RESOURCES 



has also recently been assigned to 
the office of the Judge Advocate 
General, and he is required to ex- 
amine and report upon questions of 
international law. Because of the 
present European conflict and the 
strained relations between this 
country and Mexico, many intricate 
questions of present moment have 
arisen, such as the Interference with 
American mail, removal of ex-en- 
listed men of the naval service from 



American ships, attempts by bellig- 
erent ships to board naval auxiliar- 
ies, the exercise of visit and search 
by them in territorial waters, etc. 

The subjects of the treatment of 
prisoners <>f war. while under the 
jurisdiction of the Navy Depart- 
ment, and of belligerent ships and 
individuals interned in this country. 
and the formulation of regulations 
to cover same, have also been 
assigned by regulation to this office. 



BOARD OF INSPECTION AND SURVEY 



The Board of Inspection and Sur- 
vey is charged, under specific di- 
rections in each ease, with con- 
duct Lng preliminary and final ac- 
ceptance trials of all naval vessels 
as they come from the works of 
the builders ; with the survey and 
inspection of all naval vessels in 
service at least every three years 
and at such other times as condi- 



tions render such inspections neces- 
sary or desirable: with the inspec- 
tions of motorboats for coast defense 
and patrol purposes. A section of 
the Board of Inspection and Sur- 
vey, working with certain Army of- 
ficers, constitutes a Board for the 
Inspection of Merchant Auxiliaries. 
The board operates both directly 
and through sub-boards. 



OFFICE OF THE SOLICITOR 



The duties of the Solicitor com- 
prise and relate to examination and 
report upon questions of law, includ- 
ing the drafting and interpretation 
of statutes, and matters submitted 
to the accounting officers not relat- 
ing to the personnel : preparation of 
advertisements, proposals, and con- 
tract-: insurance; patents; the suf- 
ficiency of official, contract, and 
other bonds and guaranties; pro- 
ceedings in the civil courts by or 
against the Government or its offi- 
cers in cases relating to material 
and not concerning the personnel as 
such; claims by or against the Gov- 
ernment; questions submitted to the 



Attorney General, except such as are 
under the cognizance of the Judge 
Advocate General : bills and con- 
gressional resolutions and inquiries 
not relating to the personnel and 
not elsewhere assigned : the search- 
ing of titles, purchase, sale, trans- 
fer, and other questions affecting 
lands and buildings pertaining to the 
Navy; the care and preservation of 
all muniments of title to land ac- 
quired for naval uses; and the cor- 
respondence respecting the foregoing 
duties; and rendering opinion upon 
any matter or question of law re- 
ferred to him by the Secretary or 
Assistant Secretary. 



MAJOR GENERAL COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS 



Tim Major General Commandant 

of the Marine Corps is responsible 
to the Secretary of the Navy for the 
general efficiency and discipline of 

the corps; makes such distribution 
of officers and men for duty at the 
Several shore stations as shall ap- 
pear to him to be most advantageous 
for the Interests of the service; fur- 
nishes detachments for vessels of 
the Navy according to the author- 



ized scale of allowance: issues or- 
ders for the movement of officers 
and troops, and such other orders 
and instructions for their guidance 
as may be necessary; and has 
charge ami exercises general super- 
vision and control of the recruiting 
service of the corps, and of the 
necessary expenses thereof, includ- 
ing the establishment of recruiting 
stations. 



CHAPTER XI. 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 



SECRETARY OP THE INTERIOR 



THE Secretary of the Interior is 
charged with the supervision of 
public business relating to pat- 
ents for inventions, pensions and 
bounty lands, the public lands and 
surveys, the Indians, education, the 
Geological Survey, the Reclamation 
Service, the Bureau of Mines, na- 
tional parks, distribution of appro- 
priations for agricultural and me- 
chanical colleges in the States and 



Territories and certain hospitals and 
eleemosynary institutions in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. By authority of 
the President the Secretary of the 
Interior has general supervision over 
the work of completing the survey 
of routes for railroads in the Terri- 
tory of Alaska. He also exercises 
certain other powers and duties in 
relation to the Territories of the 
United States. 



FIRST ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR 



In the absence of the Secretary 
the First Assistant Secretary be- 
comes Acting Secretary. He is espe- 
cially charged with supervision of 
the business of the General Land 
Office, including cases appealed to 
the Secretary of the Interior from 
decisions of that bureau involving 
public lands ; applications for ease- 
ments or rights of way for reser- 
voirs, ditches, railroads, telephone 
and power-transmission lines ; selec- 
tions of public lands under grants 



made by Congress to aid in the con- 
struction of railroads and wagon 
roads, for reclamation, and for the 
benefit of educational and other pub- 
lic institutions, etc. Indian affairs 
affecting the disposal of the public 
domain are under his supervision. 
He considers proposed legislation 
pertaining to matters under his ad- 
ministration. From time to time 
duties in connection with the affairs 
of other bureaus of the department 
are assigned to him. 



ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR 



The Assistant Secretary has gen- 
eral supervision over all matters 
concerning the Indian Office (except 
those which relate to the work of 
the General Land Office and are for- 
warded through that office), the Pat- 
ent Office, the Bureau of Mines, the 
Pension Office (including appeals 
from the decisions of the Commis- 
sioner of Pensions), the execution 
of contracts and the approval of 



vouchers covering expenditures of 
money for the eleemosynary insti- 
tutions under the Department of the 
Interior in the District of Columbia 
(including Saint Elizabeth's Hospi- 
tal, formerly the Government Hospi- 
tal for the Insane), and various 
miscellaneous matters over which 
the department has jurisdiction. He 
also considers proposed legislation 
pertaining to the department. 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



540 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 

ASSISTANT TO THE SECRETARY 



This officer is charged with tin 
general supervision of matters re- 
lating to the eleemosynary institu- 
tions under the Department of the 



Interior in the District of Columbia, 
the Bureau of Education, the na- 
tional parks, national monuments, 
and tlie Territories. 



CHIEF CLERK 



As the chief executive officer of 
the department and the administra- 
tive head of the Office of the Secre- 
tary the chief clerk has supervision 
over the clerks and other employees 
of the department (including the 
watch, mechanical and labor forces), 
enforces the general regulations of 
the department, and is superintend- 
ent of the several buildings occu- 
pied by the department. lie also 
supervises the classification and 



compilation of all estimates of ap- 
propriations. The detailed work re- 
lating to eleemosynary institutions 
in the District of Columbia under 
the Department of the Interior, the 
office of the returns clerk, and mis- 
cellaneous matters is done iu his 
office. During the absence of the 
Secretary and Assistant Secretaries 
he may be designated by the Secre- 
tary to sign official papers and 
documents. 



COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS 



The Commissioner of Patents is 
charged with the administration of 
the patent laws, and supervision of 
all matters relating to the granting 
of letters patent for inventions, and 
the registration of trade-marks. lie 



is by statute made the tribunal of 
last resort in the Patent Office, and 
has appellate jurisdiction in the 
trial of interference cases, of the 

patentability of inventions, and of 
registration of trade-marks. 




THE UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, WASHINGTON. D. C. 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 



541 



THE PATENT OFFICE' 



The duties of the Patent Office 
or its functions with respect to 
the inventor may be classified un- 
der a few heads. Each of these 
is of great importance and it is 
thought that the simplicity of the 
classification may aid somewhat in 
understanding fully just what the 
Patent Office does for an inventor. 

In the first place, it is the keeper 
of records, maintaining as it does in 
well classified form the patents is- 



much of these records as may be 
desired by the public. 

The registration of trade-marks 
and labels and the granting of pat- 
ents for designs also come within 
the duties of the Patent Office^ as 
well as the recordation of assign- 
ments and other instruments in writ- 
ing affecting the title to patents. 

It also maintains among its rec- 
ords the pending applications for 
patents, which are not open to pub- 




INTERIOR VIEW OF THE PATENT OFFICE 



sued by the United States, and also 
the patents issued by numerous 
foreign nations which issue Let- 
ters Patent for inventions. Inci- 
dentally, it permits the inspection of 
these records by inventors or those 
acting for them and also furnishes 
certified and uncertified copies of so 



lie inspection except to the appli- 
cant or those acting by his authority, 
and forfeited and abandoned appli- 
cations which, like the pending ap- 
plications, are not open to public 
inspection. 

The Patent Office also examines 
patent applications and determines 



* There is a special historical chapter 011 the Patent Office, page 199, 



542 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



the propriety of issuing patents on 
the same, tliis procedure including 
appeals within the Patenl < >ffice 
from the Primary Examiners to the 
Board of Examiners-in-Chief, thence 
to the Commissioner and thence to 
the Court of Appeals of the District 
of Columbia, the Commissioner in 
appeals to the court being repre- 
sented usually by one of his law 
examiners. 

The Patent Office also includes the 
court of first resort in interference 
cases, thai is to say. cases wherein 
two or more inventors are claiming 
the same patentable subjeel matter, 
and it is for the Patent Otlice to 
decide whether patent shall issue to 
the applicant whom it may he deter- 
mined was lirst to make the inven- 
tion. This procedure also contem- 
plates appeals to the Board of 
Examiners-in-Chief and thence to 
the Commissioner and to the Court 
• if Appeals. 

It is believed that under the fore- 
going heads all of the functions of 
the Patent Office can be classified. 

The course of a patenl application 
through the Patent Cilice is ordi- 
narily a simple one. The applica- 
tion, including the petition, specifica- 
tion and oath and drawing and (lie 
lirst Government fee of $15, being 
deposited with the Financial Clerk. 
the application papers and drawings 
find their way to the application 
room and draftsmen's room, and 
when the application is found in 
propei- form is forwarded by the 
chief of the application room to the 
Primary Examiner in whose class 
the particular invention is found to 
belong. The application is then ex- 
amined in the order of its filing in 
such Examiner's division, ami if it 
lie found in condition for allowance. 
or when it is so found, it is trans- 
mitted to the Issue Division^ which 
iv<ues ;i circular of allowance. Then 

if the second Government fee of $20 

he paid into the Patent < Hiiro within 
six months from the date of allow- 
ance of the application, the patenl 
will in a few weeks i^siie anil he 
forwarded to the applicant or his 



attorney. If olvjertions are found to 
the application either in form or in 
substance, considerable time is in- 
volved in many cases in adjusting 
these matters to bring the applica- 
tion into condition for allowance or 
for final rejection. 

The Primary Examiner, through 
one of his assistants, considers the 
application in the lirst instance, and 
if it is found allowable by the Pri- 
mary Examiner, either in first form 
or as amended, the case passes to 
the Issue Division without consider- 
ation by those higher in authority. 
On the other hand, if objections re- 
lating to form are found these may 
he reviewed by petition to the Com- 
missioner direct. If the objections 
go to the merits, such for instance 
as a rejection on the ground that 
the invention is not new in view 
of any particular reference cited. 
appeal may he taken to the Board 
of Examiners-in-Chief. A petition 
relating to form involves no Gov- 
ernment fee. while a petition affect- 
ing the merits and going to the 
Board of Examiners-in-Chief calls 
for a Government fee of .$10. Such 
is the course of a patenl application 
when actually tiled. 

To aid inventors and their attor 
neys in determining the probable 
novelty of any particular invention. 
the Patent Otlice maintains a Search 
Room containing the P. s. patents 
classified according to the official 
practice and arranged in suitable 
stacks or racks so that if the inven- 
tion he. for instance, a Nut Lock. 
the searcher may secure the bundle 
containing patents for such devices, 
or if it he a dynamo or a telephone. 
he can secure the bundle having the 
particular character of such devices 
to which the invention he is search- 
Lag relates. 

The Patent Otlice is not a bureau 
of information and does not un- 
dertake to answer miscellaneous in- 
quiries relative to patents, nor to 
express any opinion in advance of 
the liliiiL: of a formal application for 
patenl as to the patentability of any 
particular invention. 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 



543 



COMMISSIONER OF PENSIONS 



The Pension Bureau, which is 
said to be the largest bureau in 
the Government service, and the 
only bureau which occupies a build- 
ing erected for its especial use, is 
the active agency through which 
there was paid out last year one 



There are now on the pension roll 
about four hundred thousand males 
and three hundred thousand widows. 
Death is making sad havoc among 
their numbers. Last year there 
died, of Civil War soldiers, 34,252; 
and of widows, 19,957. 




THE PENSION OFFICE 



hundred and sixty millions of dol- 
lars of pensions to more than seven 
hundred thousand pensioners. 

At times some magazine article 
complains of the amount of pensions, 
but it will be noticed by those who 
have knowledge of the recent allow- 
ances in Canada. Australia and 
Great Britain, that the amount paid 
to an individual here is less than 
that now paid in other countries. 
The modern tendency is to care 
more for the private soldier. This 
is justified by two viewpoints — one 
is that he is the most valuable com- 
ponent part of an army and should 
be kept efficient and encouraged 
both by good care of him and of 
his family. The other reason is 
humanity, which now pays more re- 
gard to the humbler member as a 
unit of society. 



Besides the Commissioner, there 
are 1.200 employees transacting the 
necessary business of the Pension 
Bureau. Applications are not so 
numerous as formerly, yet there 
were more than sixty-five thousand 
received during last year, and 68,549 
new certificates were issued. The 
total cost of administration was only 
1 per cent of the pensions paid out, 
which is lower than ever before. 
It is believed that, under the present 
administration, the pension laws 
have been faithfully executed in an 
efficient and economic manner. 
Every beneficiary has been given 
that to which the law entitled him. 

An additional pension of .$10 per 
month has been allowed to soldiers 
and sailors holding medals of honor. 

The Act of September 8, 1916, in- 
creases from $12 to $20 per month 



544 



• hi; CO! .\ii:v AND its kksi >ri:< i :s 



the widows of Mexican and Civil 
War soldiers who are seventj years 
of aire. or who were married tn the 
soldier during the period of his serv- 
ice. Thai act also makes pension- 
able widows of Civil War soldiers 
who married prior to June U7. 1905, 
and certain remarried widows. 

Formerly payment to the pen- 
sioner was delayed, but now the 



cheek is delivered to him on the 
c\a<t date when due. Recently 
methods have been much simpli- 
fied. The expense of executing 
vouchers has been eliminated — a 
saving to the soldiers themselves of 
many thousands of dollars — and 
they are no Longer required to ex- 
hihit their certificates each time of 
indorsement of the check. 



COMMISSIONER OP INDIAN AFFAIRS 
The Commissioner of Indian Af- Alaska), their education, lands, 
fairs has charge Of the Indian tribes moneys, schools, purchase of sup- 
of the United states (exclusive of [dies, and general welfare. 



COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 



The Commissioner of Education 
collects statistics and general in- 
formation showing the condition and 
progress of education, issues an an- 
nual report, a bulletin in several 
numbers annually, and miscella- 
neous publications; has charge of 



the schools for the education of 
native children in Alaska ; super- 
vises the reindeer industry in Alas- 
ka, and administers the endowment 
fund for the support of colleges for 
the benefit of agriculture and me- 
chanic arts. See page 255. 



UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE* 



UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY* 



GENERAL LAND OFFICE 



The General Land Office is the 
oldest and in many respects the 
largest and most important Bureau 
of the 1 teparl menl of the Interior ; 
it has jurisdiction over all mat- 
ters pertaining tn the survey and 
disposition of the public lands of 
the United States, exclusive of 
lands in the insular possessions; 
also, in point of number of cases 
and values involved, the General 
Land Office, in the determination of 
questions with respect to title to 
public lands, exercises judicial func- 
tions of vast importance. Its Inter- 
nal organization consists of the 



Washington office, the local United 
states land offices, the offices of Sur- 
veyors General, the field surveying 
organization and the field service 1 
organization, making a total of 
about one hundred and twenty-five 
branch offices and headquarters, 
principally in the Western States. 
This bureau employs altogether 
about sixteen hundred people. Con- 
trary to popular belief the business 
of this department has not decreased 
in recent years, ami, owing to new 
legislation and change of govern- 
mental policies, its work is increas- 
ingly complicated and exacting. 



NATIONAL l'.l REATJ OF MINES 



The National Bureau of Mine-. 
under the Departmenl of the In- 
ferior, was created i>\ act of Con- 
gress, approved May L6 and effec- 



tive .lul.\ 1. L910. This act was 
amended by an act. effective Feb- 
ruary 25, 1913, which provides that 
the Bureau of Mines is to be a 



*Tlu' wurk of the United States Reclamation Service and of the United Suites 
Geological Survey is of such Importance thai special chapters en these subjects 

are jjiven in the Brat pan of the i k. See pages st and 119. 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 



545 



bureau of mining, metallurgy and 
mineral technology, and that the 
duty of the bureau shall be to con- 
duct scientific and technologic in- 
vestigations concerning mining, and 
the preparation, treatment and 
utilization of mineral substances 
with a view to improving health 
conditions and increasing safety, 
efficiency and economic development, 
and conserving resources through 
the prevention of waste in the 
mining, quarrying, metallurgical and 
other mineral industries ; to inquire 
into the economic conditions affect- 
ing these industries ; to investigate 
explosives and peat; and on behalf 
of the Government to investigate the 
mineral fuels and unfinished mineral 
products belonging to, or for the use 
of, the Fnited States, with a view 
to their most efficient mining, prep- 
aration, treatment and use ; and to 
disseminate information concerning 
these subjects. The act further pro- 
vides that no member of the bureau 
shall have any personal or private 
interest in any mine or the products 
of any mine under investigation, or 
shall accept employment from any 
private party for services in the ex- 
amination of any mine or private 
mineral property, or issue any report 
as to the valuation or the manage- 
ment of any mine or other private 
mineral property. This provision, 
however, does not apply to the tem- 
porary employment in a consulting 
capacity of experts whose principal 
practice is outside of the bureau. 
Another section of the act directs 
that a reasonable fee covering neces- 
sary expenses shall be charged by 
the bureau in making tests other 
than those for the Government of 
the Fnited States or State govern- 
ments. 

The inquiries and investigations 



being carried on by the bureau un- 
der the provisions of this act cover 
a wide variety of subjects and are 
too numerous to mention here. The 
chief experiment station of the bu- 
reau is in Pittsburgh, Pa. Work re- 
lating to the causes and prevention 
of mine explosions, to which the bu- 
reau has given special attention, 
and other mining problems, includes 
laboratory tests, the examination of 
mines and experiments in an experi- 
mental mine near Pittsburgh under 
conditions simulating those of com- 
mercial operations. 

In order to carry on investiga- 
tions and educational work for 
greater safety in mining, the Bureau 
of Mines has six mine-rescue sta- 
tions situated in different mining 
regions of the country, and also 
operates eight mine-rescue cars and 
two rescue trucks. These cars and 
trucks, manned by trained crews, are 
constantly ready to give aid, when 
requested by State officials, at a 
mine disaster. The cars move from 
point to point in the regions in which 
they are stationed, and the crews 
demonstrate safe methods of mining 
and the use of rescue apparatus and 
first-aid appliances. 

An act of Congress, approved 
March 3, 1915, authorizes the estab- 
lishment and maintenance under the 
Bureau of Mines of ten mining ex- 
periment and seven mine safety sta- 
tions (mine rescue cars), in addi- 
tion to those already established, 
not more than three of each class 
of stations to be established in any 
one year. It is expected that through 
these stations the safety work of the 
bureau will be made more effective, 
and that the investigations for in- 
creasing efficiency in the handling 
and utilization of mineral resources 
will be enlarged and extended. 




Copyright by Munn & < !o. 

How Five People Can Live on S8.03 a Week 

Actual Supply for a Week of Meat, Groceries, Bread, Etc. 

Figures sui>i'li<'<l by Dep't of Health, New York, Nov. 17. lov; 

THE BALANCED RATION 



CHAPTEK XII. 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE* 

SECRETARY OP AGRICULTURE 

THE Secretary of Agriculture is supervision and control over the af- 

charged with the work of pro- fairs of the department and formu- 

moting agriculture in its broad- lates and establishes the general 

est sense. He exercises general policies to be pursued. 

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE 

The Assistant Secretary of Agri- assists in the general supervision of 
culture becomes Acting Secretary in the work of the department at all 
the absence of the Secretary and times. 

CHIEF CLERK 

The chief clerk has general super- buildings, etc. He is responsible for 

vision of clerks and employees ; of the enforcement of the general regu- 

the records and correspondence of lations of the department and is 

the Secretary's office; and of ex- custodian of the buildings occupied 

penditures from appropriations for by the department in the city of 

miscellaneous expenses, rent of Washington. 

SOLICITOR 

The solicitor is charged by law department, conducts its legal work, 

(act of May 26, 1910) with the direc- and represents it in all legal mat- 

tion of the' legal work of the depart- ters. He approves, in advance of 

ment. Accordingly, he acts as legal issue, all orders and regulations 

adviser to the Secretary and the promulgated by the Secretary under 

heads of the several branches of the statutory authority. 

OFFICE OF FARM MANAGEMENT 

This office studies the details of types of farming prevailing in the 

farm practice. Its main object is various sections of the country are 

to improve farm practice by intro- being studied in a number of locali- 

ducing better business methods and ties, and a detailed study of farm 

by applying the principles of sci- economics and business principles is 

ence wherever they are known. The being made. 

*There is a special chapter on "Agriculture," page 37. 
Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



54S 



01 ft COl NTKY AM) ITS ftfiSOl ft( I - 



APPOINTMENT CLERK 



The appointment clerk prepares 
nil papers connected with appoint 
incuts, transfers, promotions, reduc- 
tions, details, furloughs, and reniov- 
als, and has charge of correspond- 



ence with the Civil Service Commis- 
sion. He is the custodian of oaths 
of office nnd personal reports. He 
hns the custody and use of the 
department seal. 



SUPPLY PIYISIoX 



The chief of the supply division 
purchases and distributes stationery 
and miscellaneous supplies and dis- 



poses of property turned in by the 
various offices when it is of no fur- 
ther use to them. 



OFFICE OF EXHIBITS 



The office of exhibits handles the 
correspondence of the department 
relative to exhibits at fairs and ex- 
positions of various kinds; co-oper- 
ates with the several branches of 



the department in preparing exposi- 
tion materia] : ships, installs, and 
cares for such exhibits; and investi- 
gates methods of displaying them to 
best advantage. 



OFFICE OF INFORMATION 



The office of information is estab- 
lished to secure the widest possible 
circulation for the discoveries and 
recommendations of the scientists 
and field workers of the department. 
It gives out to the public press facts 



taken from publications and also is published. 



from oral statements of specialists. 
Material so disseminated is set forth 
in such form as to attract attention 
and lead to the adoption of the 
methods recommended. A Weekly 
News Letter to Crop Correspondents 



This officer 
Secretary of 



FOREST APPEALS 



invest [gates 

Agriculture 



for the 
appeals 



from decisions of the Forest Service 
and reports to the Secretary. 



UNITED STATICS WEATHER BUREAU 
By C. F. MARVIN 

CHIEF T. s. WEATHElt IHUEAU 



Till"; history of the Weather 
Bureau as an organization be- 
gins with the passage of the 
act of Congress, approved February 
P. 1870, which authorized and re- 
quired the Secretary of War to pro- 
vide for the taking of meteorological 
observations throughout the United 
states and for giving telegraphic 
notice on the takes and seacoast of 
the approach of storms. Since its 
establishment the scope of its work 
has been gradually extended until 
now its functions as defined by law 
embrace the forecasting of the 
weather; I be Issue of storm warn- 



ings; the display of weather, frost 
and flood signals for the benefit of 
agriculture, commerce and naviga- 
tion: the gaging and reporting of 

rivers; the maintenance and opera- 
tion of seacoast telegraph lines and 
the collection and transmission of 
marine intelligence for the benefit 
of commerce and navigation; the re- 
porting of temperature and rainfall 
conditions for the cotton interests, 
and the taking of such meteorologi- 
cal observations as may be neces- 
sary to establish and record the cli- 
matic conditions of the Tinted 
Stales, or are essential for the prop- 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



549 



er execution of the foregoing duties. 
From the date of its organization 
until July 1, 1S91, the weather ser- 
vice was conducted as a branch of 
the Signal Corps, under the direc- 
tion of the Chief Signal Officer of 
the Army, but on the date mentioned 
it was transferred to the Depart- 
ments of Agriculture and made a bu- 
reau of that Department, under its 
present designation. 

The Weather Bureau is probably 
best known to the general public 



sphere. The results of the twice- 
daily observations are immediately 
telegraphed to the Central Office at 
Washington, D. C, where they are 
charted for study and interpretation 
by experts trained to forecast weath- 
er conditions which may be expected 
to prevail during the following 
thirty-six to forty-eight hours. From 
these data the forecaster, by com- 
parison with preceding reports, is 
able to trace the paths of storm 
areas from the time of their appear- 




CENTRAL OFFICE OF THE U. S. WEATHER BUREAU, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



through the exercise of its principal 
and most important function, the is- 
sue of the daily weather forecasts. 
These forecasts are based upon 
simultaneous observations of local 
weather conditions taken daily at 
8 A. M. and 8 P. M., 75th meridian 
time, at about two hundred regular 
observing stations scattered through- 
out the United States and the West 
Indies, and upon similar reports re- 
ceived daily from various points in 
other parts of the northern hemi- 



anee to the moment of observation, 
and approximately determine and 
forecast their subsequent courses 
and the resultant weather conditions. 
Forecast centers have also been 
established at Chicago, 111. ; New 
Orleans. La. ; Denver, Colo. ; San 
Francisco, Cal. ; and Portland, Ore. 
Within two hours after the morning 
observations have been taken the 
forecasts are telegraphed from the 
forecast centers to about 1,700 prin- 
cipal distributing points, whence 



550 



01 R COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES 



they arc further disseminated by 
telegraph, telephone and mail. The 

forecasts reach nearly 100,000 ad- 
dresses daily by mail, the greater 
part being delivered early in the 
day. and none later, as a rule, than 
6 P. M. of the day of issue, and are 
available to more than r».000,000 tel- 
ephone subscribers within an hour 
of the time of issue. This system 
of forecast distribution is wholly un- 
der the supervision and mainly at 
the expense of the Government, and 
is in addition to and distinct from 
the distribution effected through the 
press associations and the daily 
newspapers. The rural free mail de- 
livery system and rural telephone 
lines are also being utilized to bring 
within the benefits of this system 
a large number of farming com- 
munities. A careful comparison of 
the forecasts with the weather con- 
ditions occurring over the regions 
and during the periods covered 
shows that approximately ninety 
per cent of the forecasts are veri- 
fied. 

The daily weather maps, based on 
the data contained in the morning 
telegraphic reports, are issued as 
soon as practicable after these re- 
ports .-ire received. On these maps 
the salient features of the current 
weather conditions throughout the 
country are graphically represented. 
accompanied by a synopsis of these 
conditions; in addition to which 
complete reports from all the ob- 
serving stations are presented in tab- 
ulated form. In order that all sec- 
tions of the country may receive 
weather data, maps or bulletins con- 
taining the data in tabulated form, 
are Issued from about one hundred 
of i be larger stal ions. 

Tl cean meteorological service 

aims to collect, through the co-opera- 
tion of vessel masters and others, 
meteorological observations at sea. 
The recent development in the ait of 
radio-telegraphy has made possible 
the transmission of meteorological 
observations made by ships at sea 
to shore stations, thence by land 



lines to a central meteorological 
service. The Weather Bureau has 
organized a system of meteorological 
observations on vessels navigating 

the coastal water- of the middle and 

South Atlantic States, the Gulf of 

Mexico, .-mil the Caribbean Sea. the 

primary object being to gain infor- 
mation of sub-tropical storms which 
occasionally traverse the waters 
above named. Distribution of weath- 




MARVIN ELECTRICAL SUNSHINE 
RECORDER 

er Information, forecasts, and warn- 
ings is made daily by radio service 
through the co-operation of the radio 

service of the I t i i t c -« ] State- Navy. 

Although the two hundred regu- 
lar observing station-, each repre- 
senting about 16,000 square miles of 
territory. furnish sufficienl data 

upon which to base the various fore- 
casts, observations at many inter- 
mediate points are necessary before 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



551 



the climatology of the United States 
can be properly studied. This need 
has given rise to the establishment 
of an important and interesting fea- 
ture of the Weather Bureau in its 
Climatologieal Service. This service 
is divided into forty-four local sec- 
tions, each, as a rule, covering a 
single State, and having for its cen- 
ter a regular observing station. 
These centers collect temperature 
and rainfall observations from more 
than 4,000 co-operative stations and 
publish these data in the form of 
monthly reports which are given a 
widespread distribution. During 
the growing season (from April to 
September, inclusive) each section 
also receives mail reports from nu- 
merous correspondents (aggregating 
for all sections about 7,500) con- 
cerning the effects of the weather 
upon crops and farming operations, 
these reports being used to compile 
data for weekly bulletins. During 
the same season the Central Office 
at Washington issues a National 
Weather and Crop Bulletin contain- 
ing a series of charts graphically 
illustrating current and normal con- 
ditions of temperature and rainfall 
for the entire country, a general 
summary of the weather, and brief 
reports on the condition of the crops 
for each State. Throughout the cot- 
ton, corn, wheat, sugar and rice pro- 
ducing sections designated centers 
receive telegraphic reports of rain- 
fall and daily extremes of tempera- 
ture from nearby points for publi- 
cation in bulletin form, each local 
center receiving condensed reports 
from all others. 

By the assistance of several thou- 
sand co-operative observers, many of 
whom have maintained local records 
for long periods, the Weather Bu- 
reau endeavors to collect special lo- 
cal data and thus perfect the records 
that are needed for the study of the 
relation between climate and agri- 
culture, forestry, water resources, 
and other kindred subjects. The re- 
sults of these observations appear in 
detail in monthly and annual re- 



ports published at the respective sec- 
tion centers. 

A division of the bureau, known 
as the Division of Agricultural 
Meteorology, has for its lines of 
work the application of meteorology 
to the needs and interests of agri- 
culture; conducting studies of mete- 
orological and climatic conditions in 
their relation to agriculture and the 
growth and yield of crops; conduct- 
ing investigations of the effect of 




THERMOMETER SHELTER AND RAIN 

GAGE 

(Outfit of a "Co-operative Observer") 

weather and climate upon plant 
growth ; determination of the dis- 
tribution of frost warnings and fore- 
casts to special agricultural inte- 
rests ; conducting studies for the pro- 
tection of crops and orchards from 
frosts, and distributing information 
as to the effect of the weather and 
climate on crops, through the medi- 
um of the National Weather and 
Crop Bulletin and other publications. 
Among the publications of the 
Weather Bureau, the following are 
worthy of special notice: 



552 



HI I! COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




MAKVIN METEOROGRAPH SENT ALOFT 

WITH A KITE FOR UPPER-AIR 

INVESTIGATIONS 



The Monthly Weather Review, 
which has been published regularly 
since January, 1^7.'!. and which eon- 
tains elaborate meteorological tables 
and charts showing the weather con- 
ditions for the month over the 
United States and neighboring coun- 
tries. 

The reports of the sections of the 
Climate and Crop Service, showing 
in detail the climatic conditions of 
tlic month. 

The Weekly Weather and Crop 
Bulletin, which gives in detail the 
weather conditions that have pre- 
vailed throughout the country dur- 
ing the week and its effects upon 
the crops. 

The occasional bulletins, now num- 
bering about seventy, containing the 
larger reports made by the experts 
of the service. 

The library of the Weather Bu- 
reau contains about 32,000 books 
and pamphlets, consisting principally 
of technical books on meteorology 
and allied science's, and of published 
climatological data from all parts 
..I I be world. It is available to all 
Weather Bureau Officials and to stu- 
dents of meteorology generally, who 
either consult it personally or 
through correspondence. In addition 
to Its general card catalogue, it 
keeps up to date a catalogue of the 
meteorological contents of the prin- 
cipal scientific serials of ihe world. 



The Annual Report of the Chief 
of Bureau presents a full summary 
of climatic data for the United 
States. 

The apparatus used at Weather 
Bureau stations for recording weath- 
er conditions is largely the result of 
improvements devised by the In- 
strument Division, to which is in- 
trusted the care of all standards. 
The kites, meteorographs, self-regis- 
tering instruments, and other forms 
of apparatus devised by the Weather 
B u r e a u a r e favorably known 
throughout the world. 

The Bureau has a force of scien- 
tists and trained employees engaged 
in research work in connection with 
upper air conditions and solar radia- 
tion and investigations in seismol- 
ogy. 

The extent to which the work of 
the Weather Bureau, in the collec- 
tion and publication of data and the 
issue of weather forecasts and warn- 
ings, affects the daily life of the 
people and becomes a factor in their 
various avocations and business en- 
terprises, already very great, is in- 
creasing yearly. 

The uses made of the daily fore- 
casts are so numerous and well 
known as to call for no remark, but 
the value to the manifold business 
interests of the country of the pub- 
lication of weather data and the 
dissemination of warnings of excep- 
tionally severe and injurious weath- 
er conditions, such as storms and 
hurricanes, cold waves, frosts, floods. 
heavy rains and snows, is not so 
generally understood. Of the warn- 
ings mentioned, those of storms and 
hurricanes, issued for the benefit of 
marine interests, are the most Im- 
portant and pecuniarily valuable. 
Storm warnings are displayed at 
nearly .".00 points along the Atlantic. 
Pacific and Gulf coasts and the 
shores of the Great Lakes, including 
every port and harbor of any con- 
siderable Importance; and so nearly 
perfect has this service become that 
scarcely a storm of marked danger 
to maritime Interests has occurred 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



553 




Photo Harris & Ewing 
FORECASTING THE WEATHER AT THE WEATHER BUREAU, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



for years for which ample warnings 
have not been issued from twelve 
to twenty-four hours in advance. 
The sailings of the immense number 
of vessels engaged in our ocean and 
lake traffic are largely determined 
by these warnings, and those dis- 
played for a single hurricane are 
known to have detained in port on 
our Atlantic coast vessels valued, 
with their cargoes, at over $30,- 
000,000. 

The warnings of those sudden and 
destructive temperature changes 
known as cold waves are probably 
next in importance. These warnings, 
which are issued from twenty-four 
to thirty-six hours in advance, are 
disseminated throughout the threat- 
ened regions by means of flags dis- 
played on regular Weather Bureau 
and sub-display stations, by tele- 
graph, telephone, and mail service to 
all places receiving daily forecasts, 
and to a large number of special 
addresses in addition. The beneficial 



results of these warnings are mani- 
fold. Precautions are taken for the 
safeguarding of personal comfort 
and health, and the protection from 
freezing of produce of all kinds, 
steam and water pipes, hot house 
plants, and flowers. Railroads regu- 
late the size and movement of their 
freight trains, ice men prepare for 
harvesting, and many plans for busi- 
ness and pleasure are made on the 
expectation of the conditions fore- 
cast. The warnings issued in Janu- 
ary, 1S96, for a single cold wave of 
exceptional severity and extent, re- 
sulted, according to reports, in the 
saving of over $3,500,000 in the pro- 
tection of property from injury or 
destruction. 

The warnings of frost and freez- 
ing weather are also of immense 
value, particularly to the fruit, 
sugar, tobacco, cranberry and mar- 
ket gardening interests. The early 
truck raising industry, so extensive- 
ly carried on in the regions border- 



55 l 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 




WEATHER BUREAU STATION OF THE 
■OBSERVATORY" TYPE AT PEORIA 



ing on the Gulf and South Atlantic 
coasts, and in Florida, and which 
has increased so greatly in the lasl 
lew years, is largely dependent for 
its success on the co-operation of 
the Weather Bureau in this particu- 
lar, and the growers of citrus and 
other fruits liable to injury by 
frosts or freezing weather have in- 
rested large sums in tents, screens. 
heating, smudging, and irrigating ap- 
paratus for the protection of their 
groves and orchards, which they put 
into use when notified by the bureau 
of the expected occurrence of in- 
juriously low temperatures. 

The commerce of our rivers is 
greatly aided and lives and property 
in regions subject to overflow arc 
protected by the publication of the 
river stages and the issue of river 
and flood forecasts based on reports 
received from about five hundred 
special river and rainfall star 
< >n the occasion of the flood of L897 
in the lower Mississippi Valley live 
stock and other movable property 
to the estimated value of about 

$15, was removed from the 

inundated regions prioj t<» the flood, 
as a rt suit of the warnings by the 
bureau a week in advance of its 
occurrence. 

In the raisin-growing districts of 
California rain forecasts arc of 
great value. The raisin crop while 
growing is extremely susceptible to 
injurs from rain, and the warnings 



enable the producers to protect the 
fruit by stacking and covering the 
frays. The accuracy of the rain fore- 
casts for this region and the system 
for their distribution have been such 
that practically no loss from this 
cause has occurred for years. 

Shippers of perishable produce 

and g Is liable t<> injury by licit 

or cold are guided largely by the 
weather reports in making ship- 
ments and in directing their move- 
ments while on the road. Large 
dealers in produce, by careful atten- 
tion to the daily reports anil the 
weekly crop bulletins, inform them- 
selves as to the regions where con- 
ditions most favorable for certain 
crops have occurred, and are thus 
enabled to judge of the probable sup- 
ply and purchase t<> advantage. Con- 
structors of waterworks, bridges, 
culverts, and sewers consult the rain- 
fall records to ascertain the maxi- 
mum water flow they will have to 
allow for. Architects of iron and 
steel structures and tall buildings 
study the records of maximum and 
minimum temperatures and wind 
velocity, in order to estimate the 
contraction and expansion and 
amount of wind pressure their build- 
ings must he prepared to withstand. 

From the information as to clima- 
tic conditions made known through 
flu 1 reports, invalids and tourists are 
enabled to select the locations besl 
suited to their health and pleasure, 
and manufacturers and agricultur- 
ists the regions host adapted for the 
carrying on ,,f their particular in- 
dustries. By the recent expansion of 




STREET WEATHER MAP, ATLANTIC 
CITY, N. J. 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



the system of snowfall observations 
throughout the mountain regions ad- 
jacent to the Great Plains, it has 
been made possible to forecast the 
probable flow in the rivers of the 
arid regions, a factor of great im- 
portance in irrigation. The records 
of the bureau are of frequent use 
as evidence in courts of law. for 
which purpose they have been de- 
cided competent evidence by the Su- 
preme Court of the United States. 
The conduct of the regular sta- 
tions of observations outside of 



Washington requires the constant 
services of about six hundred, and 
the business of the Central Office at 
Washington of about two hundred 
employees. The annual disburse- 
ments of the bureau amount to about 
.$1,600,000. 

The numerous offices of the bureau 
throughout the country are always 
open during business hours and the 
public are cordially invited to visit 
them and avail themselves of the 
information contained in the records 
there on file. 



BUREAU (>F ANIMAL INDUSTRY 



The Bureau of Animal Industry 
has charge of the work of the de- 
partment relating to the live-stock 
industry. In general it deals with 
the investigation, control, and eradi- 



cation of diseases of animals, the in- 
spection and quarantine of live 
stock, the inspection of meat and 
meat food products, and with animal 
husbandry and dairying. 



BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY 



The Bureau of Plant Industry stu- 
dies plant life in all its relations to 
agriculture. The scientific work of 
the bureau is divided into twenty- 
seven distinct groups, over each of 
which is placed a scientifically 
trained officer, who reports directly 
to the chief and assistant chief of 



the bureau. The work of the bureau 
is conducted on the project plan, the 
investigations under each of the 
offices being arranged by group pro- 
jects consisting of closely related 
lines of work, which group of 
projects are still further divided 
into projects. 



THE WORK OF THE FOREST SERVICE" 



The Forest Service is charged 
with the administration and pro- 
tection of the 152 National forests. 
These forests comprise over 155 
million acres of land, have an esti- 
mated stand of 600 billion board 
feet of timber, supply range for 
14 million head of livestock, and 
contain water power valued at about 
.$200,000,000. In addition to caring 
for the National forests, the Forest 
Service conducts investigations of 
improved methods of utilizing and 
marketing all classes of forest prod- 
ucts : carries on studies to determine 
possible uses for wood waste, and 



co-operates with private individuals 
and corporations in solving prob- 
lems relative to the use of wood in 
general. Under the provisions of 
the Weeks Law, the Forest Service 
examines lands in the Southern Ap- 
palachian and White Mountain re- 
gions which are offered for sale to 
the Government and protects and ad- 
ministers such lands after their pur- 
chase, in addition to co-operating 
with various States in forest fire 
protection. Finally, information in 
regard to the relation of forests to 
the general welfare is collecied and 
disseminated. 



*This subject is so important that a special illustrated chapter will be found 
in the first part of this book. See page 75. 



556 



(•I R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Bl KEAU OF CHEMISTRY 
The Bureau of Chemistry is con- 
cerned with analytical work ami in- 
vestigation under the food and drills 
act, questions of agricultural chem- 



istry of public interest, and other 
chemical investigations referred to 
it by the department of Agricul- 
ture. 



BUREAU OP SOILS 

The Bureau of Soils investigates 

he relation of soils to climate and 

organic life; studies the texture 

and composition of soils in field and 

laboratory; maps the soils; studies 



the cause and means of preventing 
the rise of alkali in soils of irri- 
gated areas, and the relation of 
soils to seepage and drainage con- 
ditions. 




SOIL FERTILIZER INVESTIGATIONS 



PLANT HOUSE 



BUREAU OF 

The Bureau of Entomology 
studies insects; experiments with 
the introduction into the United 
States of beneficial insects; makes 

tests with insecticides and insecti- 
cide machinery; identities insects 
sent in by inquirers. It is prac- 
tically solely a research organization 

ami studies the insects which are 



ENTOMOLOGY 

injurious to various crops and do- 
mestic animals, and to man himself, 
in the hope of learning the cheapest 
and most effective remedies and pre- 
ventives. It expends an annual 
appropriation of about $s.">i».fi00. and 
employs some six hundred men, 
more than two hundred of whom are 
scientifically trained. 



Bl REAU OP BIOLOGICAL SURVEY 



The work of the Bureau of Bio- 
logical Survey is distributed among 
four divisions, dealing with the fol- 
lowing matters: (1) Study of 
birds and mammals in their rela- 
tion to agriculture, their food hab- 
its, etc.. and recommendation ol 
measures for the preservation of ben- 
eficial species and the destruction of 

harmful species, also experiments in 



fur farming; (2) making biological 
surveys, study of geographic distri- 
bution of animals and plants, and 
mapping natural life zones; (3) car- 
rying into effect the Federal lnws 
protecting game and regulating the 
importation of foreign birds and 
animals; and (4) general super- 
vision of tiie Federal migratory 

bird law. 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



557 




SPRAYING TREES IS A GREAT HELP TO THE FARMER 



DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS 



This division has charge of the 
disbursement of public funds ap- 



propriated for the Department of 
Agriculture. 



DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS 



The Division of Publications con- 
ducts all business of the depart- 
ment transacted with the Govern- 
ment Printing Office ; has general 



supervision of the printing, index- 
ing, binding, and distribution of 
publications, and the maintenance 
of mailing lists. 



BUREAU OF CROP ESTIMATES 



The Bureau of Crop Estimates 
issues the monthly crop reports 
based on data collected by sal- 
aried field agents and a corps of 
approximately 150,000 voluntary 
crop reporters, every State, coun- 
ty and agricultural township being 
represented. The monthly crop re- 
ports contain annual estimates of 
numbers of different classes of live 
stock on farms and losses due to 
disease and exposure, annual esti- 
mates of acreage planted and acre- 
age harvested of the principal crops, 
monthly reports of the condition of 



about sixty different crops during 
the growing season, monthly fore- 
casts of yields per acre and total 
production, monthly reports of farm 
prices of all crops and classes of 
live stock, and in December esti- 
mates of total production of all the 
principal crops. The monthly re- 
ports of condition and forecasts of 
production are issued to the press 
associations in Washington and tele- 
graphed to the Weather Bureau Sta- 
tion Directors in all the States for 
prompt dissemination to the local 
press, and at the close of the year 



558 



f>[ i: COl \'l'i;V AND ITS RESOURCES 



annual estimates of crop ami live 
stock production are published in 
the Yearbook of the Department. 
The bureau ;ilsu furnishes estimates 



timates for all adhering countries, 
which are issued i<> the press 
through the Office of Information. 
The bureau compiles statistics and 




HOW A WELL PACKED AND A POORLY PACKED BASKET 
OF LETTUCE ARRIVED AT MARKET 



of the United States crops to the 
International institute of Agricul- 
ture at Rome, Italy, and in return 
receives from the Institute crop es- 



furnishes information relating to the 
agriculture of the United states and 
foreign countries in response to 
special inquiries. 



LIBRARY 



The department library contains 
137,000 hunks and pamphlets, includ- 
ing an extensive collection <>n agri- 
culture, a large and representative 



standard reference books. Periodi- 
cals currently received number 2,337 
A dictionary catalogue is kept on 

cards, which number about 325,000. 



collection on the sciences related to The librarian has charge of the 
agriculture, and a good collection of foreign mailing lists. 



STATES RELATIONS SERVICE 



The states Relations Service of 
the United states Departmenl of 
Agriculture administers the Hatch 
and Adams acts providing Feder- 
al aid for the state agricultural 
experiment stations and the Smith- 
Lever act providing for co-opera- 
tive extension work in agriculture 
and home economics. It also has 
charge of the farmers' co-opera- 
tive demonstration work conducted 
by the Department of Agriculture, 



makes investigations relating to 
agricultural schools, farmers' in- 
stitutes, and home economics, and 
directs the work of the agricultural 
experiment stations in Alaska. Ha- 
waii. Porto Rico ami Guam. The 
service issues Kxperinienl Station 
Record, a periodical technical re- 
view of the world's scientific litera- 
ture pertaining to agriculture be- 
sides various publications relating 
to its special lines of work. 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



559 



OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS AND RURAL ENGINEERING* 



The Office of Public Roads and 
Rural Engineering has charge of 
all work within the Department 
of Agriculture which is of an ag- 
ricultural nature involving engi- 
neering or mechanical principles, to- 
gether with the supervision of all 
road work under the Federal Aid 
Road Act. For carrying out this 
work the office is divided into two 
main branches, known respectively 
as (1) Management and Economics, 
(2) Engineering, and these are sub- 
divided into lines of work as fol- 
lows : Management ; Engineering 
Economics ; Road Materials Tests 
and Research ; Highway Construc- 
tion and Maintenance ; Irrigation ; 
Drainage; Rural Engineering. For 
convenience in Federal Aid road 
work ten field districts have been 
established, and in addition to the 
general organization there are two 
general inspectors who report to the 
director of the office. With regard 
to character the work may, however, 
be more conveniently grouped into 
three general classes, as follows: 
(1) Education or extension ; (2) in- 
vestigations or research; and (3) 
the supervision of the road work 
under the Federal Aid Road Act, 
the administration of which was 
placed by Congress under the Sec- 
retary of Agriculture. 

The educational or extension work 
includes reaching the people by 
means of lectures, addresses, the 
publication of bulletins, the exhibi- 
tion of models, etc., and thus teach- 
ing the economic value of science 
and experience in the improvement 
and care of roads, the necessity and 
the methods for obtaining adequate 
land drainage, the economic impor- 
tance of farm irrigation and practi- 
cal methods, the meaning and pos- 
sibilities of modern farm conveni- 
ences, not for the farm only, but also 
for the farm home, and the intelli- 
gent utilization of farm equipment 
and machinery. 



Special advice and assistance is 
also frequently given where the 
problems to be solved involve a 
knowledge of community and co-op- 
erative administration and of meth- 
ods for planning and financing such 
works as a better system of roads 
or the irrigation or drainage of a 
district. Here the questions are 
specific rather than general and the 
lecturer gives way to the engineer. 
Not infrequently the assistance takes 
the form of an actual demonstration 
of construction under Government 
supervision. In fact, the office then 
becomes practically an object lesson 
school for road construction, the 
proper methods of farm irrigation 
or land drainage. 

The research and experimental 
work of the office has become ex- 
ceedingly important and varied by 
reason of the many problems, not 
only in road construction and main- 
tenance to which modern traffic con- 
ditions have given rise, but also in 
connection with the drainage and ir- 
rigation of agricultural lands and in 
the development of the various struc- 
tures, appliances and equipment 
necessary for adequately conducting 
farm operations. Proper co-ordina- 
tion between the investigations con- 
ducted in the laboratories and the 
results obtained from field experi- 
ments and actual practice is con- 
stantly sought, and the laboratories 
have been specially equipped so as 
to further this object. 

Under the Federal Aid Road Act 
of July 11, 1916, the Secretary of 
Agriculture is authorized to co-op- 
erate with the States through their 
respective State highway depart- 
ments in the construction and im- 
provement of rural post roads. The 
act provides for a comprehensive 
program extending over a period of 
five years, with an appropriation of 
$5,000,000 for the fiscal year 1917, 
and increasing annually by $5.- 
000.000 to $25,000,000 for the fiscal 



*The subject of "Good Roads" forms a chapter. See page 103. 



500 



01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES 



year 1921. The appropriations are 
apportioned to the several states on 
the basis <if population, area, and 
mileage of rural free delivery and 
star routes, each factor having a 
weight of one-third. The amount ap- 
portioned by the Federal Govern- 



ment must be at least duplicated by 
the State. The same act also pro- 
vides for an annual appropriation of 
$1,000,000 for a period of ten years 
for the construction of roads and 
trails within or partly within the 
national forest reserves. 



OFFICE OF MARKETS AND RURAL ORGANIZATION 



This office secures and distrib- 
utes information regarding the mar- 
keting and distributing of farm 
and non-manufactured food prod- 
ucts. It conducts a demonstration 
telegraphic market news service re- 
garding fruits and vegetables, and 



selves in matters of rural market- 
ing, credit, insurance, and communi- 
cation. It co-operates with various 
states in conducting marketing In- 
vestigations. Under authority given 
to the Secretary of Agriculture by 
law it is responsible to him for the 




COMBINATION PACKAGE FOR POSTAL DELIVERY OF EGGS. 
BUTTER AND CELERY OR CHICKENS 



a service by mail concerning the 
commercial surpluses of some other 
less perishable crops, it is begin- 
ning a similar service upon live 
stock and meats. Cooperation 
among farmers is studied, with a 
view to helping them to help them- 



proper enforcement of the United 
States Cotton Futures Act and the 
Warehouse Act, and in CO-operation 
with the Bureau of Plant Industry 
of the enforcement of the drain 
Standards Act. This office is being 
appreciated. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 



SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 



THE Secretary of Commerce is 
charged with the work of pro- 
moting the commerce of the 
United States and its mining, man- 
ufacturing, shipping, fishery, and 
transportation interests. His duties 
also comprise the administration of 
the Lighthouse Service and the aid 
and protection to shipping thereby ; 
the taking of the census and the col- 



control of the Alaskan fur-seal, 
salmon, and other fisheries ; the ju- 
risdiction over merchant vessels, 
their registry, licensing, measure- 
ment, entry, clearance, transfers, 
movement of their cargoes and pas- 
sengers, and laws relating thereto, 
and to seamen of the United States ; 
the regulation of the enforcement 
and execution of the act of Congress 




Photo Browu & Dawson 
THE MIGHTY 



'IMPERATOR" STEAMING PAST THE GREATEST 
CREATIONS ON LAND 



lection and publication of statistical 
information connected therewith ; 
the making of coast and geodetic sur- 
veys; the collecting of statistics re- 
lating to foreign and domestic com- 
merce; the inspection of steamboats, 
and the enforcement of laws relating 
thereto for the protection of life and 
property : the supervision of the fish- 
eries as administered by the Federal 
Government ; the supervision and 



relating to the equipment of ocean 
steamers with apparatus and opera- 
tors for wireless communication ; the 
custody, construction, maintenance, 
and application of standards of 
weights and measurements ; the 
gathering and supplying of informa- 
tion regarding industries and mar- 
kets for the fostering of manufac- 
turing; and the formulation (in con- 
junction with the Secretaries of Ag- 



Copyright by Mnnn & Co., Inc. 



5G2 



01 I; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



riculture and the Treasury) of regu- 
lations for the enforcement of the 
food and drugs acl of L906 and the 
Insecticide act of 1910. He has 
power to call upon other depart- 
ments for statistical data obtained 
by them. 

For the proper accomplishment 
of any or all of the aforesaid 
work it is by law provided that 
all duties performed, and all the 
powers and authority possessed 
or exercised, at the date of the 
creatiou of said department, by 
the head of any executive depart- 
ment in and over any bureau, office, 
officer, board, branch, or division of 
the public service transferred to said 
department, or any business arising 
therefrom or pertaining thereto, or 



in relation to the duties and autho- 
rity conferred by law upon such 
bureau, office, officer, board, branch, 
or division of the public service, 
whether of appellate or advisory 
character or otherwise, are vested in 
and exercised by the Secretary of 
Commerce. 

The act creating the Department 
of Labor, approved March 4, 1913. 
changed the name of the Departmeni 
of Commerce and Labor to the De- 
partment of Commerce. Under the 
terms of this act the Bureau of La- 
bor, Bureau of Immigration, Divi- 
sion of Naturalization, and Chil- 
dren's Bureau were detached from 
the Department of Commerce and 
Labor and organized as the new De- 
partment of Labor. 



ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 



The Assistant Secretary performs such 
duties as shall be prescribed from time 
to time by the Secretary or may be 



required by law. In the absence of 
the Secretary he acts as head of the 
department. 



CHIEF CLERK 



The chief clerk is charged with the 
general supervision of the clerks and 
employees of the department: the en- 
forcement of tin' general regulations of 
the department : the superintendency of 
all buildings occupied by the department 
in tlie District of Columbia; the sen- 
era! supervision of all expenditures from 



the appropriations for contingent ex- 
penses and rents: the receipt, distribu 
tion, and transmission of the mail : the 
supervision of the library and the stock 
and shipping section of the department ; 
and the discharge of all business of the 
office of the Secretary not otherwise 
assigned. 



DISBURSING CLERK 



The disbursing clerk is charged by the 

Secretary of Commerce with the duty of 
preparing .ill requisitions fin- the ad 
trance of public' funds from appropria- 
tions for the Department of Commerce 
io disbursing clerks ami special dis- 
bursing agents charged with the dis 
bursement of public funds; the keeping 
of appropriation ledgers relating to the 
advance and expenditure of all items of 
appropriations, lie has charge of the 



issuing, recording, and accounting for 
Government requests for transportation 
issued to officers of the depa rt men t for 
official travel: the audit and payment 
of all vouchers and accounts submitted 
from the various offices, bureaus, and 
services of the department (except the 
t'oast and Geodetic Survey and those 
services having special disbursing 
agents) : ami the general accounting of 
the department. 



U'l'olNTMKNT DIVISION 



The Chief of the Appointment Division 
Is charged by the Secretary of Commerce 
with the supervision of matters relating 
to appointments, transfers, promotion-. 
reductions, removals, and all other 
changes In the personnel. Including ap 
plications for positions and recommen 
dations concerning the same, and the 
correspondence connected therewith : the 



preparation and submission to the Sec 
retary of all material for the Official 
Register, and the custody of oaths of 
other, records pertaining to official bonds. 
service records of officers and employees, 
correspondence and reports relating to 
personnel, reports of bureau officers 
respecting efficiency of employees, and 
records relating to leaves of absence 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 



563 



DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS 



The Chief of the Division of Publi- 
cations is charged by the Secretary of 
Commerce with the conduct of all busi- 
ness the department transacts with the 
Government Printing Office ; the general 
supervision of printing, including the 
editing and preparation of copy, illus- 



trating and binding, the distribution of 
publications, and the maintenance of 
mailing lists. The advertising done by 
the department is in his charge. He also 
keeps a record of all expenditures for 
publishing work of the department and 
conducts the correspondence it entails. 



DIVISION OF SUPPLIES 



Under the direction of the chief clerk 
the Chief of the Division of Supplies has 
personal supervision of all the work in- 
cident to the purchase and distribution 
of supplies for the department proper 
and for the services of the department 
outside of Washington, and of the keep- 
ing of detailed accounts of all expendi- 
tures from the appropriation for con- 



tingent expenses of the department. He 
receives, verifies, and preserves the semi- 
annual returns of property from the 
offices and bureaus of the department 
which are supplied from the contingent 
appropriation, and examines and reports 
on the semi-annual property returns of 
all other bureaus and services of the 
department. 



BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE* 



The Bureau of Foreign and Do- 
mestic Commerce is concerned pri- 
marily with the collection of infor- 
mation concerning foreign markets 
and the dissemination of this infor- 
mation for the use and benefit of 
American commercial interests. For 
the collection of information the 
bureau depends chiefly upon the 
American consular service, upon the 
ten commercial attaches appointed 
by the bureau, and upon a corps of 
fifteen to twenty-five traveling spe- 
cial agents. 

The consuls submit reports to the 
State Department on a variety of 
commercial subjects, and once a 
year prepare a review of the com- 
mercial and industrial activities of 
the district to which they are as- 
signed. These reports are turned 
over to the Bureau of Foreign and 
Domestic Commerce for publication. 

There are commercial attaches at 
London, Paris, Berlin, Petrograd, 
Peking, Melbourne, Rio de Janeiro, 
Buenos Aires, Lima, and Santiago 
(Chile). They are attached to the 
embassies or legations, but confine 
their attention to commercial affairs. 
They have been termed "business 
diplomats" and "ambassadors of in- 
dustry." This service has recently 
completed a world-wide survey of 



the markets for American hardware, 
the first that has ever been made. 

The special agents are specialists. 
If it is desired to learn the possibil- 
ities of selling boots and shoes in 
South America, for instance, a man 
is selected by examination who 
knows the business thoroughly, who 
can speak Spanish fluently, and who 
can report well what he learns. This 
man is then sent to South American 
countries to spend a year or two 
studying the subject. Since the war 
started the activities of the special 
agents have been largely centered in 
South America and the Far East. 

The information gathered by the 
consuls, attaches and agents is dis- 
tributed from the central office at 
Washington. The shorter current 
reports are published in the daily 
"Commerce Reports," which has a 
paid circulation of nearly 10,000. 
The longer and more specialized re- 
ports are published in the form of 
monographs, ranging in length from 
16 to 500 pages. There are books of 
this kind on the cotton-goods mar- 
kets of nearly every country in the 
world. The reports of the attaches 
on the hardware markets are being 
published in this form. Specific op- 
portunities to secure foreign busi- 
ness are published as "Trade Oppor- 



*See page 2,31 for "The Recent Development of American Commerce," by Secre- 
tary Redfield, and "Commercial and Industrial Preparedness," by Dr. E. E. Pratt, 
Chief of the Bureau, page 245. 



564 



01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



trinities," on the hack page of "Com- 
merce Reports," with oames and ad- 
dresses omitted. The information 
withheld can be obtained by any 
American firm of known standing 
ii] >< hi application to the bureau. 
Hundreds of thousands of dollars 
rili of business is brought to the 
Lted states in this manner. Upon 
asion special bulletins are sent to 
.manufacturers and exporters. 

To facilitate the distribution of 
trade information the bureau has re- 
cently established district offices at 
New York. Boston, Atlanta. Chicago, 
St. Louis, New Orleans. San Fran- 
cisco, and Seattle. What are termed 
"co-operative offices" have been es- 



tablished at Philadelphia. Chatta- 
DOOga, Cincinnati. Cleveland. Los 
Angeles and Portland. Ore. These 
co-operative offices are in reality for- 
eign-trade departments of the local 
chambers of commerce which have 
made special arrangements to fur- 
nish the same information service 
in their districts as the regular dis- 
trict offices furnish in theirs. 

The foreign-trade statistics used 
so extensively in the public press are 
compiled by the Bureau of Foreign 
and Domestic Commerce from cus- 
tom house documents, in coopera- 
tion witli the Treasury Department 
These statistics are published month- 
ly, quarterly, and yearly. 



'IIIH BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 



A census of the population of 
the United states has been taken 
decennially by the Federal Gov- 







V 




-•-±m 


1 




1 


1 



CENSUS TABULATING MACHINE 

ernment, beginning in iT'.nt. The 
Constitutional requirement of a de- 
cennial census is found in Article 

i. Section ::, which directs that Rep 



resentatives and direct taxes shall 
be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective 
numbers, as ascertained by actual 
enumeration, to he made once in 
ten years. 

From decade to decade the scope 
of the census was extended to in- 
clude not only a great amount of 
detail with respect to the population 
but also othei entirely distinct lines 
of inquiry, such as agriculture, 
manufactures, etc. 

In 1902 the Census Office was by 
law made a permanent branch of 
the Department of the Interior un- 
der the name "Bureau of the Cen- 
sus." A year later it was trans- 
ferred to the newly created Depart- 
ment of Commerce and Labor, and 
since March 4, 1913, it has been a 
bureau of the Department of Com- 
merce. 

The last decennial census covered 
the subjects of population, agricul- 
ture, manufactures and mines and 
quarries and oil and gas wells. 

During the years intervening be- 
tween decennial censuses the bu- 
reau conducts decennial inquiries re- 
lating to wealth, debt and taxation, 
to dependent, defective and delin- 
quent classes, t<> religious bodies, to 
fisheries and to transportation by 
water; quinquennial inquiries in re- 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 



565 



gard to manufactures, central elec- 
tric light and power stations, street 
and electric railways and telegraphs 
and telephones ; annual collections 
of birth and death statistics and of 
financial and other statistics of 
cities ; semi-annual inquiries as to 
stocks of leaf tobacco held by inanu- 



The Census Bureau has developed 
its tabulating machinery to an 
extraordinarily high degree of effi- 
ciency, so that by its aid the aver- 
age output of the clerks engaged in 
routine tabulation is increased 
many fold. The illustration on the 
preceding page shows the machine 




Photo by Harris & Ewing 

"ON YOUR MARK:" AWAITING THE SIGNAL RELEASING CROP REPORTS 
Reporters waiting to rush to telephones 



facturers and dealers ; and periodical 
collections, at intervals averaging 
less than one month, of statistics 
relating to cotton and cottonseed. 

Special inquiries are occasionally 
devolved upon the bureau by Con- 
gress, by the President or by the 
Secretary of Commerce. 



by which the final process of me- 
chanical tabulation is performed. 
Punched cards are automatically fed 
into this machine at the rate of 400 
or more per minute, and the statis- 
tical facts indicated on them by the 
positions of the holes are electrically 
recorded with unerring accuracy. 



BUREAU OF STANDARDS 



The functions of the Bureau of 
Standards are as follows : The cus- 
tody of the standards ; the compari- 
son of the standards used in scien- 
tific investigations, engineering, man- 
ufacturing, commerce, and educa- 



tional institutions with the stand- 
ards adopted or recognized by the 
Government ; the construction, when 
necessary, of standards, their mul- 
tiples and subdivisions ; the testing 
and calibration of standard measur- 



566 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Lng apparatus; the solution of prob- 
lems which arise in connect ion with 
standards; the determination of 
physical constants and properties of 
materials, when such data are of 
great importance to scientific or 
manufacturing interests and are not 



cipal government within the United 
States, or for any scientific society, 
educational institution, firm, corpor 
ation, or individual within the Unit- 
ed States engaged in manufacturing 
or other pursuits requiring the use 
of standards or standard measuring 




TEST SET OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES RECOMMENDED BY THE U. S. BUREAU 

OF STANDARDS 



to be obtained <>f sufficient accuracy 

elsewhere: and other investigations 
as authorized by Congress. The bu- 
reau is authorized to exercise its 
functions for the Government of the 
United Slates, for any State or muni- 



instruments. For all comparisons, 
calibration tests, or investigations, 
except those performed for the Gov- 
ei i'neiit of the United States or 
siate governments, a reasonable fee 
will be charged. 



BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES 

The work of the Bureau of on the "Government Protection of 
Lighthouses is given in the chapter Life and Property at Sea." page 135. 

Bl RE \i OP FISHERIES 

The work of the Bureau of Fish- ter on "The Fish We Eat." See 
cries is given in the special chap- page <".7. 

I \lli:i) STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. 

The work of the United States in the chapter on "The Three Greal 
Coast and Geodetic Survey is given Governmenl Surveys." page 127. 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 



507 



BUREAU OF NAVIGATION 

By HON. EUGENE TYLER CHAMBERLAIN 

Commissioner of Navigation 



THE Federal Government exer- 
cises general superintendence 
over merchant shipping through 
the Bureau of Navigation of the 
Department of Commerce. To en- 
gage in trade or in the fisheries, 
vessels in the United States must 
first secure a permit from the Gov- 
ernment ; that is to say, vessels of 
which the contents are 500 cubic 



also decides all questions about 
measuring the cubical contents of 
the vessel, a somewhat intricate task 
performed by custom house officers. 
As various charges, Federal, local 
and private, are based on the size 
of vessels, the Federal Government 
through the Bureau of Navigation 
endeavors to see that the rules of 
measurement are enforced uniform- 




"Dixie' 



"Tarragon" 



BUREAU OF NAVIGATION FLEET 



feet or more. Smaller boats are not 
required to get this permit, nor are 
barges, lighters and similar craft 
employed only in harbors or on 
canals and waters not subject to 
Federal jurisdiction. The issue of 
these permits is based on the clause 
of the Constitution which gives the 
Federal Government the power to 
regulate commerce with foreign na- 
tions and between the States. These 
permits are called registers if the 
vessel is to engage in foreign trade, 
and enrollments or licenses if the 
vessel is to engage solely in trade 
between American ports. Collectors 
of Customs issue annually these 
papers, of which there are over 26,- 
000, but the Bureau of Navigation 
superintends the work and decides 
al] doubtful questions. The Bureau 



ly. Foreign nations follow the same 
general method of issuing documents 
to their ships and measuring their 
size as does the United States — in- 
deed, the laws of the United States 
on ships' registers date back to the 
time of Alexander Hamilton, first 
Secretary of the Treasury, who 
adopted the British system. 

The only important tax imposed 
by the Federal Government on ships 
in foreign trade is a duty on their 
tonnage or cubical contents, which 
may not exceed annually 30 cents 
a ton, or 100 cubic feet, on ships in 
trade with the more remote conti- 
nents, or 10 cents annually on ships 
in trade with the nearby foreign 
ports of North America and adja- 
cent islands. This Federal tax law 
is also enforced by Collectors of 



.-,• a 



01 K COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Customs under direction of the P.u- 
reau of Navigation. The tax is im- 
posed uniformly on American and 
foreign ships. 

Every maritime nation supervises 
the labor contracts entered into by 
the seamen on its merchant vessels 
engaging in foreign trade. This su- 
pervision is to prevent frauds upon 
seamen, to prevent their being left 
stranded in foreign ports and to 
enable the seaman to know in ad- 
vance just what work he has agreed 
to perform, the course and duration 
of the voyage, the fare he is to re- 
ceive on board and the pay he is to 
get. These contracts are made in 
writing on printed Government 
forms and are signed by a shipping 
commissioner or collector of cus- 
toms as a representative of the Gov- 
ernment. When the contract has 
been performed and the voyage end- 
ed, the seamen are paid off and 
discharged before the shipping com- 
missioner. Governments are spe- 
cially interested in the whereabouts 
and welfare of their merchant sea- 
men, as in many countries they are 
reckoned an asset in national de- 
fense. During the past fiscal year 
487,524 officers and men signed such 
agreements and were later paid off 
and discharged by the commission- 
ers, some men appearing in the total 
as often as the number of voyages 
they made. It requires 60.000 offi- 
cers and men to man the ocean- 
going merchant ships and yachts 
under the American flag, and the 
Bureau of Navigation of the Com- 
merce Department lias general su- 
pervision over the Shipping and dis- 
charge of crews under the method 
outlined. The American Navy uow 
has about .".".. (mio enlisted men. and 
officers and the Marine Corps bring 
the total beyond the number in the 
merchant service. When the war- 
ships recently ordered are in com- 
mission four or five years hence the 
Navy will require 77,000 enlisted 
men. 

The Bureau of Navigation also 
supervises the laws requiring wire- 
less apparatus and operators on 



ships and requiring wireless appara- 
tus and operators on sea or land to 
be licensed and to conform to re- 
quirements of the international 
treaty and American law designed 
to prevent the interference of wire- 
less stations with one another. To 
carry out these laws and the treaty 
the Bureau has radio insi>ectors at 
the principal seaports and Great 
Lake ports to inspect wireless appa- 
ratus on ships lief ore their departure 
and make sure that the main appa- 
ratus is efficient and that the aux- 
iliary apparatus, employed if the 
main apparatus is put out of opera- 
tion by accident at sea. is ready for 
use. In the last fiscal year these 
officers made 7.2.36 inspections of 
ships before leaving port. 

The laws of the United States 
regulating American merchant ships 
and foreign merchant ships in Amer- 
ican ports fill a volume of consider- 
able size, popularly termed the Navi- 
gation Laws. These laws are de- 
signed partly to insure the safety 
of passengers and crews, partly to 
prevent the misuse of the American 
flag, to secure revenue and to pre- 
vent frauds on the revenue, to pro- 
mote American shipbuilding, to se- 
cure comfortable quarters for 
steerage passengers, to prevent col- 
lisions, tire and other casualties, to 
secure efficient officers and sufficient 
crews, to furnish complete statistical 
records within limits, to regulate 
trade with foreign ports and be- 
tween American ports, including 
those in Alaska. Hawaii and Porto 
Rico, and for many other purposes. 
\ iolations of these laws involve pen- 
alties of greater or less severity and 
from the beginning of Government 
it has been found necessary to lodge 
somewhere discretionary power to 
mitigate or remit such penalties 
when circumstances warranted that 
action, the full statutory penalties 
being imposed in flagrant and willful 
cases. This discretionary power is 
lodged in the Secretary of Com- 
inerce, and the preliminary Investi- 
gation of such matters is made for 
him by the Bureau of Navigation, 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 



509 



which ascertains all the facts and 
recommends a course of action to 
the Secretary. Last year 7,895 such 
cases were examined by the Bureau 
of Navigation. At seaports viola- 
tions of law are reported by col- 
lectors of customs, radio inspectors, 
Coast Guard officers, inspectors spe- 
cially designated to see to it that 
steamers, especially excursion steam- 
ers, do not leave port with more 
passengers than can be safely car- 
ried, and by steamboat-inspection 
officers. Each owner, master, officer 
or man charged with violation of 
law has an opportunity to offer his 
defense or excuse in writing, and the 
evidence is then weighed by the 
Bureau of Navigation and a recom- 
mendation made to the head of the 
department. 

Since motor boats began to fur- 
nish the means of water transporta- 



tion for many parts of the country 
and motor boating became a national 
sport the navigation laws have come 
close to thousands of Americans who 
before were only remotely aware of 
their existence. There are about 
250,000 motor boats on the waters 
of the United States. The Bureau 
of Navigation has two motor boats 
of its own ("Dixie" and "Tarra- 
gon") which are almost constantly 
engaged in securing compliance with 
the laws among vessels generally, 
but especially among motor boats. 
They cover the Atlantic coast from 
Eastport, Me., to Key West, Fla., 
visiting the intervening bays, har- 
bors, sounds and rivers during the 
seasons of greatest local activity, 
and have proved to be an efficient 
and economical means of securing 
strict compliance with the naviga- 
tion laws. 



THE STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE 

By D. N. HOOVER, Jr. 
Acting Supervising Inspector General 



ORGANIZATION 



THE head of the Steamboat In- 
spection Service is the Super- 
vising Inspector General, who 
is stationed at Washington, and un- 
der the Supervising Inspector Gen- 
eral is the Deputy Inspector General. 
In addition to the clerical force at 
Washington there work directly un- 
der the supervision of the central 
office, two traveling inspectors, one 
located at New York, N. Y., and the 
other at San Francisco, Cal., whose 
business it is to re-examine vessels 
with a view to ascertaining whether 
the local inspectors have properly 
inspected the same, and also to fol- 
low up complaints that may be re- 
ferred to them by the central office. 
A corps of assistant inspectors, 
detailed for duty at the steel 
mills for the purpose of testing plate 
to be used in construction of marine 
boilers, also works under the direct 
supervision of the central office. 



The United States, including Ha- 
waii, Alaska and Porto Rico, is 
divided into ten supervising inspec- 
tion districts, over each of which 
districts presides a supervising in- 
spector. 

The Supervising Inspector Gener- 
al and the ten supervising inspectors 
above referred to constitute the 
Board of Supervising Inspectors, 
which meets in annual session the 
third Wednesday of January each 
year for the purpose of establishing 
all necessary regulations required to 
carry out in the most effective man- 
ner the laws that relate to the Steam- 
boat Inspection Service. 

Each Supervising inspection dis- 
trict is divided into local inspection 
districts. Over each local inspection 
district a board of local inspectors, 
consisting of an inspector of hulls 
and an inspector of boilers, presides. 
In those districts where the pressure 



571 1 



OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES 



of work requires it. there are also 
stationed assistanl inspectors, who 
work under the supervision of the 
board of local inspectors of the 
district. 

ACTIVITIES OF THE SERVICE 

The Service exists for the purpose 

of inspecting vessels, licensing offi- 
cers and conducting investigations of 

disasters and violations of law. 

Once each year, steamers subject 
to inspection are required to have 
the hulls of the same thoroughly ex- 
amined, and the inspectors must sat- 
isfy themselves that such vessels are 
of a structure suitable for the ser- 
vice in which they are to be em- 
ployed, have suitable accommoda- 
tions for passengers and crew, and 
are in a condition to warrant the 
belief that they may be used in navi- 
gation as steamers with safety to 
life, and the inspectors have to sat- 
isfy themselves that all the require- 
ments of law in regard to fires, 
boats, pumps, hose, lite preservers, 
floats, anchors, cables, and other 
things are faithfully Complied with. 
Furtherm >re, all excursion and fer- 
ry steamers are required to be re- 
Lnspected three times during the year 
for which certified or during the 
period of navigation. Local inspec- 
tors are also required to Inspect the 
boilers and their appurtenances in 
all steam vessels before the same 
shall lie used, and once at least in 
every year thereafter, are required 
to subject all boilers to hydrostatic 
pressure. They must assure them- 
selves that the boilers are well made, 
of good and suitable material : that 
the openings for the passage of wa- 



ter and steam, respectively, and all 
pipes and tubes exposed to heat, are 
of proper dimensions and free from 
obstructions; that the spaces be- 
tween and around the flues are suf- 
ficient : that flues, boilers, furnaces, 
safety valves, fusible plugs, low- 
water indicators, feed-water appa- 
ratus, gauge cocks, steam gauges, 
water and steam pipes connecting 
boilers, means of prevention of 
sparks and flames from fire doors. 
low-water guides, means of remov- 
ing mud and sediment from boilers, 
and all other such machinery and 
appurtenances thereof, are of such 
(•(instruction, shape, condition, ar- 
rangement, and material that they 
may be safely employed in the serv- 
ice proposed without peril to life. 

Applicants for licenses from the 
Service obtain the same in all in- 
stances, except in the case of oper- 
ators for motor boats, after due writ- 
ten examination before the local in- 
spectors having jurisdiction, and in 
the case of deck officers, in addition 
to the written examination, they are 
examined as to color-sense and 
visual acuity. As a result of the 
Seamen's Act. the Service also cer- 
tificates able seamen and lifeboat 
men. 

The boards of local inspectors 
have authority by statute to investi- 
gate disasters and violations of law. 
and when they are conducting such 
investigations they are proceeding in 
a quasi judicial manner, and by 
statute certain appeals are provided 
from the local inspectors to the 
supervising inspectors, and in cer- 
tain instances, to the Supervising 
inspector General. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 



THE SECRETARY OF LABOR 



THE Secretary of Labor is 
charged with the duty of 
fostering, promoting, and de- 
veloping the welfare of the wage 
earners of the United States, im- 
proving their working conditions, 
and advancing their opportunities 
for profitable employment. He has 
power under the law to act as 
mediator and to appoint commis- 
sioners of conciliation in labor dis- 
putes whenever in his judgment the 
interests of industrial peace may re- 
quire it to be done. He has authori- 
ty to direct the collecting and col- 
lating of full and complete statistics 
of the conditions of labor and the 
products and distribution of the 
products of the same and to call 
upon other departments of the Gov- 
ernment for statistical data and re- 
sults obtained by them and to col- 
late, arrange, and publish such sta- 
tistical information so obtained in 
such manner as to him may seem 
wise. His duties also comprise the 
gathering and publication of in- 
formation regarding labor interests 
and labor controversies in this and 
other countries; the supervision of 
the immigration of aliens, and the 
enforcement of the laws relating 
thereto, and to the exclusion of Chi- 
nese; the direction of the adminis- 
tration of the naturalization laws; 
the direction of the work of investi- 
gating all matters pertaining to the 

welfare of children and child life 
and to cause to be published such 
results of these Investigations as he 
may deem wise and appropriate. 



The law creating the Department 
of Labor provides that all duties 
performed and all power and au- 
thority possessed Or exercised by the 
head of any executive department at 
the time of the passage of the said 
law. in and over any bureau, office, 
officer, board, branch, or division of 
the public service by said act trans- 
ferred to the Department of Labor, 
or any business arising therefrom or 
pertaining thereto, or in relation to 
the duties performed by and au- 
thority conferred by law upon such 
bureau, officer, office, board, branch, 
or division of the public service. 
whether of an appellate or advisory 
character or otherwise, are vested in 
and exercised by the head of the 
said Department of Labor. The 
Secretary id' Labor is also given au- 
thority and directed to investigate 
and report to Congress a plan of 
co-ordination of the activities, duties, 
and powers of the office of the Sec- 
retary of Labor with the activities. 
duties, and powers of the present 
bureaus, commissions, and depart- 
ments, so far as they relate to labor 
and its conditions, in order to har- 
monize and unify such activities, 
duties, and powers, with a view to 
additional legislation to further de- 
line tin' duties and powers of the 
Department of Labor, and to make 
such special investigations and re- 
ports to the President or Congress 
as may lie required by them or which 
he may deem necessary, and to re- 
port annually to Congress upon the 
work of the Department of Labor. 



Copyright by Munn A: <'•■., [nc. 



DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 



573 



ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF LABOR 



The Assistant Secretary performs 
such duties as shall be prescribed 
by the Secretary or may be required 



by law. He becomes the Acting 
Secretary of Labor in the absence 
of the Secretary. 



CHIEF CLERK 



The chief clerk is charged with the 
general supervision of the clerks and em- 
ployees of the department ; the enforce- 
ment of the general regulations of the 
department ; the superintendency of all 
buildings occupied by the department in 
the District of Columbia ; the general 



supervision of all expenditures from 
the appropriations for contingent ex- 
penses and rents ; the receipt, distribu- 
tion, and transmission of the mail, and 
the discharge of all business of the 
Secretary's office not otherwise as- 
signed. 



DISBURSING CLERK 



The disbursing clerk is charged by the 
Secretary of Labor with the duty of 
preparing all requisitions for the advance 
of public funds from appropriations for 
the Department of Labor to disbursing 
clerks and special disbursing agents 
charged with the disbursement of public 
funds ; the keeping of appropriation 
ledgers relating to the advance and ex- 
penditure of all items of appropriations. 
He has charge of the issuing, recording. 



and accounting for Government requests 
for transportation issued to officers of 
the department for official travel ; the 
audit and payment of all vouchers and 
accounts submitted from the various 
offices, bureaus, and services of the de- 
partment ; the general accounting of 
the department ; and the accounting for 
all naturalization receipts received under 
the provisions of the act of June 29, 
1906. 



APPOINTMENT CLERK 



The appointment clerk has charge of 
all clerical work incident to appoint- 
ments which are made under the juris- 



diction of the department. He is custo- 
dian of oaths of office, bonds of officers, 
personnel files, and efficiency reports. 



DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS AND SUPPLIES 



The Chief of the Division of Publica- 
tions and Supplies is charged by the 
Secretary of Lr.bor with the conduct of 
all business the department transacts 
with the Government Printing Office ; 
the general supervision of printing, in- 
cluding the editing and preparation of 
copy, illustrating and binding, the dis- 
tribution of publications, and the main- 
tenance of mailing lists. All blank 
books and blank forms and the printed 
stationery of all kinds used by the bu- 
reaus and offices of the department in 
Washington and the various outside ser- 
vices of the department are in his cus- 
tody and are supplied by him. The ad- 
vertising done by the department is in 
his charge. He also keeps a record of 
all expenditures for the publishing work 



of the department and conducts the cor- 
respondence it entails. Under the direc- 
tion of the chief clerk he has personal 
supervision of all the work incident 
to the purchase and distribution of 
supplies for the department proper and 
for the services of the department out- 
side of Washington and of the keeping 
of detailed accounts of all expenditures 
from the appropriation for contingent 
expenses of the department. He re- 
ceives, verifies, and preserves the semi- 
annual returns of property from the 
offices and bureaus of the department 
which are supplied from the contingent 
appropriation, and examines and reports 
on the semi-annual property returns of 
all other bureaus and services of the 
department. 



BUREAU OF IMMIGRATION 



The Bureau of Immigration is charged 
with the administration of the laws re- 
lating to immigration and of the Chinese- 
exclusion laws. It supervises all ex- 
penditures under the appropriation for 
"Expenses of regulating immigration." 



It causes alleged violations of the immi- 
gration, Chinese-exclusion, and alien con- 
tract-labor laws to be investigated, and 
when prosecution is deemed advisable 
submits evidence for that purpose to the 
proper United States district attorney. 



574 



(Hi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



DIVISION OF INFORMATION 



The division of information, under the 
Bureau of Immigration, gathers from all 
available sources Information concerning 
the resources, products, and physical 
characteristics of the states and Terri- 
tories. This information is made avail- 
able to admitted aliens and others seek- 
ing homes or places of settlement. 

l oder the direction of the Secretary of 



Labor, the division also acts as a division 
for the distribution and employment of 
labor, and is the central office of the 
eighteen distribution zones covering the 
entire Dnited States. In this phase of 
its activities it co-operates with the 
Post Office Department, the Department 
of Agriculture, and the Department of 
the Interior. 



BUREAU OF NATURALIZATION 



The act approved March 4. 1913, cre- 
ating the Department of Lahor. provided 
a Bureau of Naturalization, and that the 
Commissioner of Naturalization, or. in 
his absence, the Deputy Commissioner 
of Naturalization, shall be the adminis- 
trative officer in charge of the Bureau of 
Naturalization and of the administration 
of the naturalization laws under the 
immediate direction of the Secretary of 
Labor. Under the provisions of the act 
of June 29, 1906, naturalization juris- 
diction was conferred upon approximate- 
ly 3,500 United States and State courts. 
The duties of the Bureau of Naturaliza- 
tion are to supervise the work of these 



courts in naturalization matters, to con- 
duct all correspondence relating to natur- 
alization, and. through its field officers 
located in various cities of the United 
States, to investigate the qualifications 
of the candidates for citizenship and 
represent the Government at the hear- 
ings of petitions for naturalization. In 
the archives of the bureau are filed 
duplicates of all certificates of naturali- 
zation granted since September 26, 1906, 
as well as the preliminary papers of all 
candidates for citizenship filed since that 
date, averaging an annual receipt of ap- 
proximately 450,000 naturalization pa- 
pers. 



BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 



The Bureau of Labor Statistics is 
charged with the duty of acquiring and 
diffusing among the people of the United 
States useful information on subjects 
connected with labor in the most gen- 
eral and comprehensive sense of that 
word, and especially upon its relations 
to capital, the hours of labor, the earn- 
ings of laboring men and women, and 
the means of promoting their material, 
social, intellectual, and moral prosperity. 

It is especially charged to Investigate 
the causes of and facts relating to con- 
troversies and disputes between emploj 
ers and employees as they may occur, 
and which may happen to interfere with 

the welfare of the people of the several 

States. 

It is also authorized, by act of March 
2, 1895, to publish a bulletin on the 
condition of labor in this and other 
countries, condensations of state and 
foreign labor reports, facts as to condl 
tions of employment, and such other 
[acts as may be deemed of value to the 



industrial interests of the United States. 
This bulletin is Issued in a number of 
series, each dealing with a single sub- 
ject or closely related group of subjects. 
and the bulletin is published at irregu- 
lar intervals as matter becomes avail- 
able for publication. 

By the act to provide a government 
for the Territory of Hawaii, as amended, 
it is made the duty of the bureau to 
collect and present in quinquennial re 
ports statistical details relating to all 
departments of labor In the Territory 
of Hawaii, especially those statistics 
which relate to the commercial, industri- 
al, social, educational and sanitary con 
dition of the laboring classes. 

The administration of the act of May 
30, 1908, granting to certain employees 
of the Tinted states the right to receive 
from it compensation for injuries sn- 
tained in the course of their emploj 
ment, is vested in the bureau by the act 
of March 4, 1913, creating the Depart- 
ment of Labor. 



CHILDREN'S BUREAU 



The act establishing the bureau pro- 
vides that it shall Investigate and report 
upon all matters pertaining to the wel 
fare of children and child life among 
all classes of our people, and shall es 

peclallj i n \ est Iga te the questions of In- 
fant i taiity. the birth rate, orphanage, 

juvenile courts, desertion, dangerous qc 



cupations, accidents and diseases of 
cnudren, employment, and legislation af- 
fecting children in the several states and 
Territories. The bureau is also empow 
ered to publish the results of these In 

\ estimations in such manner and to such 
extent as may be prescribed by the Sec 

retarj of Labor. 



CHAPTER XV. 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 

TIIE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, AT WASHINGTON, FOR THE INCREASE AND 
DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE AMONG MEN 

From Official Sources 



THE Smithsonian Institution 
was created by act of Congress 
in 1846, under the terms of the 
will of James Smithson, an English- 
man, who, in 1826, bequeathed his 
fortune to the United States of 
America to found, at Washington, 
under the name of the "Smithsonian 
Institution," an establishment for 



the "increase and diffusion of knowl- 
edge among men." From the in- 
come of the fund a building, known 
as the Smithsonian building, was 
erected on land given by the United 
States. The Institution is legally 
an establishment having as its mem- 
bers the President of the United 
States, the Vice-President, the Chief 




THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 



576 



01 It COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



Justice and tho President's Cabinet 
li is governed by a Board of Regents 
consisting of the Vice-President, the 
Chief Justice, three members of the 
United stales Senate, three mem- 
bers of the House of Representa- 
tives and six citizens of the United 
States, appointed by joint resolution 
of Congress. It is under the imme- 
diate supervision of the secretary of 
the Smithsonian institution, who is 
the executive officer and the director 
of all of the Institution's activi- 
ties. 

For the increase of knowledge the 
Institution aids investigators by 
making grants for research and ex- 
ploration, supplying hooks, appara- 
tus, laboratory accommodations, etc. 
It occasionally provides for lectures, 
which are published. It has initiated 
numerous scientific projects of na- 
tional importance, some of which 
have resulted in the creation of in- 
dependent Government bureaus. It 
advises the Government in many 
matters of scientific character, espe- 
cially in those that have an interna- 
tional aspect 



For the diffusion of knowledge the 

Institution issues three regular 
series of publications: Annual Re- 
ports. Smithsonian Contributions to 
Knowledge and the Smithsonian Mis- 
cellaneous Collections. All these 
publications are distributed gratui- 
tously to important libraries 
throughout the world. 

The Institution, in co-operation 
with the Library of Congress, main- 
tains a scientific library which num- 
bers 260,000 volumes, consisting 
mainly of the transactions of learned 
societies ami scientific periodicals. 

The parent institution has the ad- 
ministrative charge of several 
branches which .urew out of its early 
activities and which are supported 
by Congressional appropriations. 
These are the National Museum, in- 
cluding the National Gallery of Art ; 
the Intel-national Exchange Serv- 
ice; the Bureau of American Eth- 
nology: the National Zoological 
Park: the Astrophysical Observa- 
tory, ami the Regional Bureau for 
the International Catalogue of Sci- 
entific Literature. 




NATURAL HISTORY BUILDING. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 



Till: UNITED STATES .NATIONAL MUSEUM 



Established by the ad of Con- 
gress of L846 founding the Smith- 
sonian Institution, and under its 
direction, the United States Na- 
tional Museum is the designated 
depository for the national col- 



lections in art and natural his- 
tory, being also charged with 
their classified arrangement and 
their use in advancing knowledge 
and promoting education. Starting 
with accommodations in the Smith- 



THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 



sonian building, which it still 
largely occupies, two extensive 
structures have since been erected 
especially for its purposes, one com- 
pleted in 1881, the other in 1911. 
Located on the Mall, between Ninth 
and Twelfth Streets, these three 
buildings furnish the museum with 
about 650,000 square feet or nearly 
15 acres of floor space, somewhat 
more than half of which is devoted 
to the public exhibitions. 



and storage quarters and an audi- 
torium. 

The natural history collections, in- 
cluding, besides zoology and botany, 
geology, paleontology, ethnology, 
archeology and physical anthro- 
pology, represent the greatest and 
most important growth of the 
museum. The first notable acquisi- 
tion consisted of the rich and varied 
results of the cruise of the U. S. 
Exploring Expedition in the South 




HALL OF AMERICAN HISTORY, OLDER BUILDING, U". S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 



The latest building, four stories 
high, of white granite, with a main 
frontage of 561 feet and a depth 
of 364y 2 feet, and costing $3,500,000. 
is architecturally one of the most 
prominent among the Government 
edifices in Washington. Specifically 
designed to meet the requirements 
of natural history, and with its two 
main floors and part of another com- 
posed of large exhibition halls, it 
also contains exceptionally exten- 
sive and well-appointed laboratories 



Seas and other waters during the 
four years from 1838 to 1842. Then, 
for a long period, the bulk of the 
a < -cessions came from numerous spe- 
cial explorations, principally by the 
Government, in the western part of 
the United States, and to some ex- 
tent in other near and far regions ; 
and these were followed by the regu- 
larly organized Government surveys 
and investigations, still in progress. 
Through thousands of other sources 
material from every qiaarter of the 



578 



QUE COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



globe has also been acquired, an ! 
this constant How of specimens has 
advanced the National Museum in 
its oatural history departments to 
the highesl rank among the museums 
of the world. Its collections are. 
naturally, most complete for North 
America, and. besides having served 
as the basis for extended and im- 
portant researches for over two 
thirds of a century, they have been 
liberally utilized in the interest of 
general education, with methods of 
public installation developed to a 
remarkable stage of perfection. 



of periods, the most conspicuous fea- 
ture being a large and varied series 
of Washington relics, one hall is 
devoted t<> costumes and another to 
coins, medals and postal tokens. The 
industrial art collections are of 
greal importance both historically 
and suggestively, and while inade- 
quate facilities have somewhat re- 
tarded their development, they al- 
ready form the basis of a depart- 
ment of the utmost practical signifi- 
cance. Among the subjects even 
now widely represented are the 
graphic arts and ceramics; textiles, 




'JOHN BULL" ENGINE, AND HALL OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY. OLDER 
BUILDING, U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 



The older museum and Smith- 
sonian buildings are assigned to 
American history and the industrial 
arts, except that the upper main 
story of the latter structure is oc- 
cupied by the division of plants, or 
National Herbarium. The exhibi- 
tion collections of history, which lill 
four balls, are especially rich in 
mementoes of prominent persons and 



laces, embroideries, woods, medi- 
cines, foods and the various miscel- 
laneous uses to which animal and 
vegetable products are put ; the pro- 
cesses "\' mining ami of dealing with 
mineral products; land, water and 
air transportation: lire arms ami 
other weapons, weights and meas- 
ures: electrical and other inven 
tions. including the telegraph, tele- 



THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 



579 



phone and phonograph; and all 
classes of machinery and of physical 
apparatus. 

The National Gallery of Art or 
department of the fine arts acquired 
in 1849 a notable series of engrav- 
ings of the old masters and many 
works on art which had been assem- 
bled by George P. Marsh. Occa- 
sional additions were received in 
subsequent years, but it was not 
until the bequest of Harriet Lane 
Johnston in 1906 that the gallery 
took form. This collection of seven- 
teen paintings, besides other objects, 
includes a Luini and several excel- 
lent English and Dutch portraits. 
In the same year Mr. Charles L. 
Freer, of Detroit, Mich., presented 
his notable collection of American 
and Oriental art, to which he has 
constantly added until its size has 
been more than doubled. It now 
consists of some 5,346 articles, of 
which over 1,000 are paintings, 
pastels, drawings, engravings, litho- 
graphs, etc., by nine American art- 
ists, headed by Whistler ; while the 



Oriental objects, exceeding 4,300 in 
number, some of which date back 
several centuries B. C, include paint- 
ings, pottery, bronzes, sculptures, 
jades, glass, etc., mainly from China, 
Japan, Corea, Persia, India, Meso- 
potamia and Egypt, constituting a 
collection of exceptional value, un- 
rivaled in the importance of the 
material it furnishes for research 
into the art of the Far East. To 
Mr. William T. Evans, of New York, 
the gallery is indebted for a selec- 
tion of 151 paintings in illustration 
of the work of contemporary Ameri- 
can artists, 106 of whom are repre- 
sented, and also for numerous ex- 
amples of the best American wood 
engraving. There have also been 
many individual contributions to the 
gallery, and, in default of other ac- 
commodations, its possessions are 
provisionally installed in the natural 
history building, except the Freer 
collection, for which a special build- 
ing has been designed and will imme- 
diately be erected at the expense of 
Mr. Freer. 



THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE 



The International Exchange Ser- 
vice — a branch of the United States 
Government carried on under the 
direction of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion — serves as an intermediary for 
the exchange of scientific and liter- 
ary publications between establish- 
ments and individuals in the United 
States and those in foreign coun- 
tries. This phase of its work was 
begun soon after the Institution was 
founded in 1846. 



Later, in 1867, an exchange of 
official documents between govern- 
ments was established, and Con- 
gress, by act of March 2 of that 
year, provided for this purpose a 
certain number of copies of all par- 
liamentary acts and of all publica- 
tions printed by order of any depart- 
ment or bureau of the Government, 
which are forwarded through the 
Exchange Service to various for- 
eign countries. 



BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



The Bureau of American Ethnol- 
ogy was established by Congress in 
1879, at the instance of the late 
Major J. W. rowell, for the pur- 
pose of conducting ethnologic re- 
searches among the American In- 
dians, but subsequently its investi- 
gations were extended to include 
Hawaii. Although devoted chiefly 
to the aborigines in the United 



States, researches by the bureau 
have been conducted in lesser degree 
in Canada, Mexico, Central Amer- 
ica. South America and the West 
Indies. In these investigations 
ethnology has been taken in its 
broadest sense to include all the 
activities of the Indian race, as 
well as their archeology and his- 
tory. The results of the bureau's 



:,si ) 



01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



studies to the present time are em- 
bodied in thirty-three annual re- 
ports and sixty-three bulletins pub- 
lished or in press, as well as a num- 
ber of miscellaneous publications. 
The bureau maintains a corps of 
nine ethnologists, possesses an eth- 



nologic reference library of about 
21,500 volumes and 13.500 pamph- 
lets, many thousand photographic 
negatives of Indian portraits and 
other subjects, and a large collection 
of original manuscripts, pertaining 
chiefly to Indian linguistics. 




ANIMALS AT THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK 



NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL LARK 



The National Zoological Park, es- 
tablished by act of Congress in 
1890, "for the instruction and recre- 
ation of the people," and placed 
under the direction of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, maintains a col- 
lection of living animals which is 
exhibited free to the public. The 
park occupies 169 acres in the val- 
ley of Rock Creek, about three miles 



northwest of the White House. The 
collection comprises (June 30, 1916) 
about 1,400 specimens. The number 
of visitors during 1015 was over 
1 .( ii M 1,1 N it >. The park co-operates with 
the United states National Museum, 
the Department of Agriculture, the 
United States Hygienic Laboratory. 
and private investigators, in various 
ways. 



TIIK ASTHOPHYSICAL OKSKRVATORY 



The Astrophysical Observatory of 
the Smithsonian Institution, founded 
in 1890 and supported by small 
annual appropriations by Congress, 
is engaged in exact measurements 
of the intensity of the sun's radi- 
ation. Principal results: Map of 
Fraunhofer lines of infra-red solar 
spectrum to wave-length 53000 Ang- 
stroms. I determination of the mean 

intensity of solar radiation out- 
side the earth's atmosphere, 1.93 
calories per square centimeter per 



minute. Discovery of the varia- 
bility of the sun's radiation through 
a range of about ."i per cent attend 
Ing the sun spot cycle, and also of 
an irregular variability, sometimes 
reaching 1«» per cent in short inter- 
vals of a few days or weeks. Prin- 
cipal observing station on .Mount 
Wilson. California. Expeditions to 
North Carolina, Sumatra. Flint 
Island for total solar eclipse work, 
and to Mount Whitney. Cal. (14,500 
feet) and Bassour, Algeria, for solar 



THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 



581 



radiation work. Inventions of sil- 
ver disk pyrheliometer, standard 
water pyrhelioineters and pyrano- 
meter. Furnished about thirt/v 



standardized silver disk pyrhelio- 
meters to government and private 
observatories in various parts of the 
world. 



UNITED STATES REGIONAL BUREAU INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF 

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE 



The International Catalogue of 
Scientific Literature publishes an 
annual classified index to the liter- 
ature of science. The organization 
consists of a central bureau in Lon- 
don and thirty-three regional bu- 



reaus established in, and supported 
by, the principal countries of the 
world. That for the United States 
is supported by an annual appro- 
priation from Congress, adminis- 
tered by the Smithsonian Institution. 




TOWER TELESCOPE. ASTROPHYSICAL 
OBSERVATORY, MOUNT WILSON 



CHAPTER XVI. 

MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES OF THE 

GOVERNMENT 

THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING 

OFFICE 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 

By Hon. CORNELIUS FORD, Public Printer 



FROM 17S0 to 1861 the Govern- 
ment printing and binding was 
done in private offices. This 
plan became expensive and unsatis- 
factory, and in ISO! Congress au- 
thorized the purchase of the print- 
ing plant then owned by Cornelius 
Wendall, located en a portion of the 
site now occupied by what is known 
as the "old building." This office 
at the time of purchase employed 
300 persons, and the Government 
paid approximately $135,000 for the 
building and equipment. Subse- 
quently various additions were made 
to the plant, but were inadequate to 
meet the demands for work. The 
development of printing and binding 
for the public is typical of the in- 
dustrial and commercial growth of 
the republic, and emphasizes the 
spirit of inquiry ami investigation 
that characterizes the American 
people— a spirit that is causing an 

almost fabulous volui f printing 

on subjects of general, special, or 
peculiar Interest to our citizens. 

In 1899, the need of larger quar- 
ters having become imperative, 
Congress authorized the construc- 
tion of the present building oil 
ground adjoining the "Id offices. 
This building is of magnificenl pro- 
portions, and is a landmark in the 



Capital City, and an ondurinjr monu- 
ment to the art of typography and 
the part it plays in our Government. 
It contains 7 floors, with basement 
and loft, with floor space of :;7l\ .':."><> 
square feet, and cost approximately 
$2,410,000. The old building is used 
principally for storage, and com- 
bined floor area of entire plant is 
13% acres. The office is as nearly 
fireproof as any building can be 
made, and numerous wide staircases 
are distributed in such a way as to 
facilitate the egress of employees in 
case of lire or panic. The most up- 
to-date sanitary conditions prevail, 
an emergency hospital is provided 
for the use of employees, and a 
"rest room" is available for use of 
women employees who may become 
exhausted during working hours. 
There are about -4.(1(111 persons em- 
ployed, and the entire plant is under 
the direct management of the Public 
Printer, who is appointed by the 
President at an annual salary of 
s:».."(m>. 

The general layout is as follows: 
.loii Composing Room— 92 employees. 
with up-to-date equipment : this siv- 
tiOD handles 30,000 jobs in a year. 
Linotype ( Composing Section — 245 
employees, with 81 linotype machines 
ami firsl «iass equipment ; about l 



Copyright by Mmm «v Co., inc. 



Miscellaneous activities 



583 



billion ems of type are sot in one 
year on the linotype machines. 
Monotype Composing Section — 435 
employees, with 165 keyboards and 
126 casters ; about 1 billion 300 mil- 
lion ems of type are set in one year 
on the monotype machines. Hand 
Composing Section — 225 employees, 
engaged principally in correcting, 
making up and imposing. Proof 
Room — 270 employees, engaged in 
editing, preparing, reading and re- 
vising. Electrotype and Stereotype 
Foundry — 130 employees, with up-to- 
date equipment, producing over 
13,000,000 square inches of plated 
matter in a year. Press Room — 443 
employees, with 145 modern presses ; 
all rollers and about one-third of 
necessary ink are made on premises. 
Bindery — 950 employees, with com- 
plete machine equipment for all 
kinds of pamphlet and bound work. 
A number of smaller divisions 
handle special work, such as postal 
cards, money order books, etc. 
Branch offices are located in the 
State, AVar and Navy building and 
in the Congressional Library, and 
handle emergency work for these 
branches of the Government. 

The buildings contain 16 elevators, 
besides several lifts for handling 
forms of type from pressroom or 
foundry. Eight automobile trucks, 
with capacity ranging from 1,000 to 
8,000 pounds each, together with a 
number of side-car motorcycles, de- 
liver all work produced in the Gov- 
ernment Printing Office. Pneumatic 
tubes furnish rapid communication 
between various divisions. A plate 
vault for the storage and safekeep- 
ing of electrotype and stereotype 
plates is located in the basement of 
the new building, occupying 10,000 
square feet of floor space ; old plates 
are constantly being destroyed and 
the metal used over, and new plates 
added ; about 1,200.000 plates, weigh- 
ing approximately 7.000,000 pounds, 
are constantly on hand. 

The engine room equipment con- 
sists of four electric generators 
totaling 2,500 kilowatts, two air 
compressors with capacity of 3,000 



cubic feet of free air per minute, 
one 2,0(10.000 gallon pumping engine, 
and one refrigerating plant for cir- 
culating drinking water and making 
ice. The boiler room equipment 
consists of eight boilers, six of which 
are Scotch marine type, hand fired, 
totaling 1,800 horse-power, and two 
are water tube boilers with auto- 
matic stokers, totaling 1,000 horse- 
power ; a total of 2,800 horse-power. 
The total value of all machine 
equipment is approximately $2,500,- 
000. The upkeep of building and 
equipment is under the direction of 
a superintendent of buildings, and 
this work is handled by an elec- 
trical division with 71 employees, a 
machinists' division with 32 em- 
ployees, a carpenter division with 
27 employees and a building division 
with 36 employees. 

The materials used yearly are as 
follows: Paper stock, 32,000,000 
pounds; ink, 65,000 pounds; leather 
stock, 300,000 square feet ; gold and 
aluminium, 30,000,000 square inches ; 
sewing thread, 32,000.000 yards; 
cloth for binding, 250,000 yards; 
wire for stitching, 6,500,000 feet; 
glue, 225,000 pounds; paste, 34,000 
gallons ; card containers, 3,000,000 ; 
metals, 200,000 pounds ; keyboard 
paper, 10,200,000 feet; coal, 12,500 
tons ; soap, 40,000 pounds. 

The Government Printing Office is 
the largest office in the world, but 
printing and binding is increasing 
so rapidly that it is only by exten- 
sive systematizing of production 
methods can Government needs be 
met. The vast increase in work is 
shown by fact that blanks, schedules, 
postal cards, money order forms, 
envelopes and similar work printed 
in fiscal year 1915 totaled about 3 
billion copies, as compared with 
about 131 millions in 1880. Book 
work increased proportionately and 
about 1,700,000 type pages are set 
in one year. 

The output of postal cards is ap- 
proximately 4,000,000 a day. About 
120,000,000 money order forms are 
printed each year and delivered in 
books of from 50 to 200 each. 



r,M 



oi it C01 'NTiiY a.\i> its RESOURCES 



Some of the principal items of 
production in ;i year arc: Copies on 
job work, postal cards ami money 
orders, 3,000,000,000; blank books, 
1,130,000; newspapers and miscel- 
laneous documents bound, 100,000 ; 
pamphlets and books printed, 100,- 
000,000. In addition, the Daily Con- 
gressional Record is printed each 
night during session of Congress, 
varying in size from 8 to 225 quarto 
pages; tbe copy comes in late at 
night — some of it as late as 2 A. M. ; 
type must be set, plates made, 34,000 
copies printed, folded, gathered, 
wire-stitched and addressed in time 
to catch early morning mail. About 
30 million copies of speeches are 



on paper, and delivery made to the 
Capitol, one half mile distant, in 
from 15 to 20 minutes after copy is 
received. The bound CoiKjrcssiunaJ 
Record, covering proceedings of the 
63d Congress. I'd Session, made 19 
volumes; 6,130 copies were printed 
and bound on each volume, making 
a total of 110.470 volumes. 

The total annual expense of the 
office is about $6,500,000, and this 
amount is divided and allotted be- 
tween Congress, tbe departments 
and the various bureaus of the Gov- 
ernment, in accordance with their 
necessity for printing, each being 
allowed printing and binding only to 
the amount of their allotment. Ex- 




PRINTING- 4,000,000 POSTAL CARDS EACH DAY. 



printed annually for Members of 
Congress and paid for by them. 
Approximately 25,000 bills and reso- 
lutions of Congress are printed dur- 
ing a session, varying in size from 
L' to 200 pages, with from 200 to 800 
copies on each. I Miring the closing 
hours of a session of Congress the 
pressure for hurried work is tremen- 
dous and there have been times 
when hills making from 1 to 12 
pages have been put in type, read. 
1 copy printed on parchment and 3 



Isting law requires this printing and 
binding to be done at cost, and 
charges are based upon a fixed scale 

of prices, regulated by a modern 
cost system, and rendered for each 
piceo of work produced. Employees 
work eight hours a day, receive a 
compensation comparing favorably 
with union wages paid tb.r0Ugb.0Ul 
tbe country, and are allowed thirty 
days' vacation with pay each year. 
Some divisions of the office run 
night forces throughout the year and 



MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES 



385 



others only during the session of 
Congress. Employees working at 
night receive a 20 per cent advance 
over day rates in pay. 

The Division of Public Documents 
is a central distributing agency for 
Government publications and re- 
ceives, by law, copies of all public 
documents printed in the Govern- 
ment Printing Office. A specified 
number of these documents are dis- 
tributed to certain designated de- 
pository libraries throughout the 
country, and other copies are sold 



at cost to the public, no m-»re than 
one copy to any one person. Forty 
million documents are sent out by 
this division in a year, and in order 
to facilitate mailing a 30-inch belt 
conveyor, operating through a tun- 
nel 7 feet high, 8 feet wide and 455 
feet long, connects the Government 
Printing Office with the mailing 
tables of the city post office. Copies 
of Government publications can be 
secured by writing the Superin- 
tendent of Documents, Government 
Printing Office, Washington, D, C. 



COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE 



The Council of National Defense 
was created by the act of June 3, 
1910. Its membership consists of 
the Secretaries of War. Navy, In- 
terior, Agriculture, Commerce and 
Labor, and a civilian advisory com- 
mission of seven members nominated 
by the Council and appointed by the 
President. The Advisory Commis- 
sion is composed of Daniel Willard, 
president of the Baltimore & Ohio 
Railroad, chairman ; Samuel Gom- 
pers, president of the American Fed- 
eration of Labor ; Dr. Franklin H. 
Martin, of Chicago; Howard E. Cof- 
fin, of Detroit; Bernard Baruch, of 
New York ; Dr. Hollis Goudfrey, of 
Philadelphia, and Julius Rosenwald, 
of Chicago. All the members, as 
such, serve without compensation, 
but are allowed actual expenses of 
travel and subsistence when attend- 
ing meetings of the Council, or en- 
gaged in investigations pertaining to 
its activities. 

The duties of the Council are to 
supervise and direct, investigations 
and make recommendations to the 
President and the heads of execu- 
tive departments as to the location 
of railroads, with reference to the 
frontiers of the United States, so 



as to render possible expeditious 
concentration of troops and supplies 
to points of defense ; the co-ordina- 
tion of military, industrial, and com- 
mercial purposes in the location of 
extensive highways and branch lines 
of railroads ; the utilization of 
waterways ; the mobilization of 
military and naval resources for 
defense ; the increase of domestic 
production of articles and materials 
essential to the support of armies 
and of the people during the inter- 
ruption of foreign commerce ; the 
development of seagoing trans- 
portation ; data as to amounts, loca- 
tion, method and means of produc- 
tion, and availability of military 
supplies; the giving of information 
to producers and manufacturers as 
to the class of supplies needed by 
military and other services of the 
Government, and the creation of 
relations which will render possible 
in time of need the immediate con- 
centration and utilization of the 
resources of the nation. 

It establishes the policy for the 
Government departments as regards 
national defense. The actual work 
will be done by sub-committee. Its 
first meeting was held Dec. 0, 1910. 



INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION 



The Interstate Commerce Coin- 
mission, appointed under "an act to 
regulate commerce." approved Feb- 
ruary 4, 1887, has supervision over 



all common carriers engaged in the 
transportation of passengers or 
property wholly by railroad, or 
partly by railroad and partly b.v 



586 



OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



water, when both are used under 
common control, management, or ar- 
rangement for a continuous carriage 

or shipment, including express, 
Bleeping and parlor car companies. 
telephone, cable, telegraph and wire- 
less companies, and all pipe lines. 
Erom one Stale. Territory, or Dis- 
trict of the 1'nited States to any 
other state. Territory, or District 
of the United States, or to any for- 
eign country. It has jurisdiction 
to inquire into and report on the 
reasonableness of rates: undue or 
unreasonable preferences or advan- 
tages in transportation rates or 
facilities; to prescribe the publicity 
to be given to joint tariffs: the 
power to call for reports, to require 
the attendance of witnesses and the 

production of 1 ks and papers, to 

hear complaints of the violation of 
the act made against any carrier, 
and to determine what reparation 
shall be made to the party wronged. 

By the act of June 18, 1910, the 
jurisdiction of the commission was 
increased as to through rates, and 
joint rates, freight classification, 
switch connections, long and short 
hauls, tiling or rejection of freight 
schedules, investigat ions on own mo- 
tion, determining reasonable rales. 
suspension of proposed rates, and 
other matters. 

The act of March 2, 1893, known 
as the •'safety appliance act," pro- 
vides that railroad cars used in 



interstate commerce must be 
equipped with automatic couplers, 
and drawbars of a standard height 
for freight cars, and have grab- 
irons or handholds in the ends and 
sides of each car: and that loco- 
motive engines shall be equipped 
with a power driving-wheel brake 
and appliances for operating the 
train-brake system. 

Other acts have delegated further 
powers and duties to the commis- 
sion, such as regulating the safe 
transportation of explosives by com- 
mon carriers: compelling railroad 
companies to equip locomotives and 
tenders with safe appurtenances; 
the investigation of railroad acci- 
dents; compelling railroads to equip 
cars with sill steps, hand brake's, 
ladders, running boards, and roof 
handholds, and designating the num- 
ber, dimensions. location and man- 
ner of application of appliances; 
and making common carriers liable 
for all damage to property caused 
by them, and' forbids, with certain 
exceptions, limitations of liability. 
The commission has been directed 
to investigate, ascertain, and report 
the value of property owned or used 
by every common carrier. 

The commission is now composed 
Of seven members. It appoints a 
secretary, and such attorneys, ex- 
aminers, special agents, and clerks 
as are necessary in the proper per- 
formance of its duties. 



ri\ it. si:i;\ hi: com MISSION 



The purpose ,,f the civil service 
act, as declared in its title, is "to 
regulate and improve the civil serv- 
ice of the United states." it pro- 
vides for the appointment of three 
commissioners, not more than two 
of whom shall be adherents of the 
same political party, and makes it 
the duty of the commission to aid 
the President, as he may request, 
in preparing suitable rules for car- 
rying the act Into effect. The act 
requires that the rules shall pro- 
vide, .-1111011- other things, for open 
competitive examinations for test- 



ing the fitness of applicants for the 
classified service, the making of ap- 
pointments from among those pass- 
ing witli highest grades, an appor- 
tionment of appointments in the de- 
partments at Washington among the 
States and Territories, a period of 
probation before absolute appoint- 
ment, and the prohibition of the use 
of official authority to coerce the 
political action of any person or 
body. The acl also prcn ides for in- 
vestigations touching the enforce- 
ment of the rules, and forbids, under 
penalty of line or imprisonment, or 



MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES 



587 



both, the solicitation by any person 
in the service of the United States 
of contributions to be used for 
political purposes from persons in 



such service, or the collection of 
such political contributions by any 
other person in a Government 
building. 



FEDERAL RESERVE BOARD 



Generally speaking, the functions 
of the Federal Reserve Board are 
to exercise a broad supervision over 
the affairs and conduct of twelve 
Federal reserve banks established in 
accordance with the terms of the 
Federal reserve act in different parts 
of the country and invested with 
authority to discount paper, issue 
Federal reserve notes, and perform 
the various banking functions de- 
scribed in the act itself. The board 
has full power to appoint its own 
staff of employees and officers and 
to regulate the conditions of their 



employment. Its support is derived 
from the several reserve banks from 
assessments levied by it half yearly 
pro rata. The board is responsible 
to Congress and reports annually to 
that body. Certain functions in con- 
nection with the national banking 
system are also assigned to it under 
the legislation, although the Comp- 
troller of the Currency, who is a 
member of the board, exercises the 
same general administrative and 
supervisory authority over the na- 
tional banks that has been in his 
hands in the past. 



THE FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION 



The Federal Trade Commission 
was organized March 16, 1915. It 
consists of five Commissioners, ap- 
pointed by the President. Their 
term of office is seven years, and not 
more than three of them shall be of 
the same political party. The work 
of the Commission falls within three 
main divisions. 

First, it is charged with the duty 
of enforcing the law against unfair 
methods of competition. It receives 
informal complaints of such meth- 
ods employed in interstate com- 
merce. If upon examination there 
is, in the judgment of the Commis- 
sion, reason to believe that such un- 
fair methods are being used it pro- 
ceeds to have them corrected, either 
by informal negotiations with the 
parties complained against or, in 
case this fails, by filing its own 
formal complaint and conducting 
hearings in the case. If the prac- 
tices complained of are found ac- 
tually to exist the Commission issues 
its order directing those indulging in 
them to cease and desist. The Com- 
mission has considered and disposed 
of many cast's and in most instances 
the practices complained of have 



been abandoned without the filing 
of formal complaints. 

Second, it makes, either on its 
own initiative, if deemed in the pub- 
lic interest, or by direction of either 
House of Congress, special investi- 
gations of particular industries for 
the purpose of ascertaining all the 
facts relative thereto, with the view 
of correcting abuses if any are 
found to exist. It has concluded, or 
is now conducting, investigations of 
this kind with respect to the fer- 
tilizer, petroleum, beet sugar, coal 
and print paper industries, and 
others. It has also investigated con- 
ditions in the foreign trade of the 
United States and the tariff laws 
and regulations of several South 
American countries. 

Third, it offers its advice and 
assistance to business men along 
lines that will be helpful in bring- 
ing about greater efficiency. In this 
connection it has prepared systems 
of cost accounting that are adapted 
to the needs of manufacturers and 
merchants. In addition to this its 
expert accountants are available to 
associations of business men for the 
purpose of conferring with them and 



588 



mi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



offering advice with respect to their 
accounting methods. Merchants and 
manufacturers can obtain copies of 



bulletins containing the accounting 
systems upon application to the 
Commission at Washington, D. C. 



UNITED STATES (JEOCiUAl'IIIC BOARD 




By Executive 
order of August 
10. hhm;. the offi- 
cial title of the 
T" ii i ted States 
Board on Geo- 
graphic Names 
was changed to 
United States 
Geographic Board and its duties 
enlarged. 

The Board passes on all unsettled 
questions concerning geographic 
names which arise in the depart- 
ments, as well as determining, 
changing and fixing place names 
within the United States and its 
insular possessions, and all names 
hereafter suggested by any officer of 



the Government shall be referred to 
the board before publication. The 
decisions of the board are to be 
accepted by all departments of the 
Government as standard authority. 
Advisory powers were granted the 
board concerning the preparation of 
maps compiled, or to bo compiled, in 
the various offices and bureaus of 
the Government, with a special view 
to the avoidance of unnecessary 
duplications of work: and for the 
unification and improvement of the 
scales of maps, of the symbols and 
conventions used upon them, and of 
the methods of representing relief. 
All projects of importance are now 
submitted to this hoard for advice 
before being undertaken. 



com MISSION oP PINE ARTS 



The duties of the Commission of 

Fine Arts consist of giving general 
advice upon the location of statues, 
fountains and monuments in the 
public squares, streets and parks in 
the District of Columbia; upon the 
selection of models for statues, 
fountains and monuments erected 
under the authority of the United 
States; and the method of selection 



of the artists for their execution : 
upon the plans and designs for pub- 
lic structures and parks in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia ; and upon all 
questions involving matters of art 
with which the Federal Government 
is concerned. The commission ad- 
vises upon general questions of art 
whenever requested to do so bj the 
President or a committee of Congress. 



ARLINGTON MEMORIAL AMPHITHEATER COMMISSION 



Created by public buildings act of 
March 1. 1913, to direct the construc- 
tion of a memorial amphitheater and 
chapel in Arlington National Ceme- 
tery, Virginia, at a cost of $750,000. 
The building will consisl of an ellip- 
tical structure inclosing an open-air 
amphitheater with seating capacity 
for about 5,000 persons. The exterior 

of the building will be in the form of 
:i colonnade of white Vermont mar- 
ble with cm ranees at the ends of the 
principal axes. The front entrance 
will be <>n the cast, and this section 
will contain on the firsl Hour a recep- 



tion hall and stage of the auditorium, 
a museum room on the second floor 
and a chapel in the basement. The 
entrance will be on the west side. 

The Commission consists of the 
Secretary of War. chairman: the 
Secretary of the Navy, the sui>orin- 
tendent of the Dinted Sfafes Capitol 
Building and Grounds and repre- 
sentatives of the Grand Army of the 
Republic, Confederate Veterans and 
United Spanish War Veterans. 
Colonel Win. W. Harts. D. S. Army. 
is the Executive and Disbursing 
Officer of the Commission. 



MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES 



580 



ALASKAN ENGINEERING COMMISSION 

The Alaskan Engineering Commission 
was created under the act of March 12, 
1014, which empowered, authorized, and 
directed the President to locate, con- 
struct, operate, or lease a railroad, or 
railroads, to connect the interior of 
Alaska with one or more of the open 
navigable ports on the coast. Authority 
was also granted to purchase existing 
railroads, to construct, maintain, and 
operate telegraph and telephone lines, 
and to make reservations of public lands 
in Alaska necessary for the purposes of 
the railroad. 

For the execution of this work a com- 
mission of three engineers was appointed 
by the President to make the necessary 
surveys. They were directed to report 
to the Secretary of the Interior, under 
whom the President has placed the gen- 
eral administration of the work. 

NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR 
AERONAUTICS 

The National Advisory Committee for 
Aeronautics was appointed by the Presi- 
dent, pursuant to act of Congress ap- 
proval March .'!, 1915. Its membership 
consists of two officers of the Army, two 
officers of the Navy, a representative 
each of the Smithsonian Institution, the 
United States Weather Bureau, and the 
United States Bureau of Standards, to- 
gether with one member from the Treas- 
ury Department and four professors 
from various universities who are ac- 
quainted with the needs of aeronautical 
science, or skilled in aeronautical engi- 
neering or its allied sciences. All the 
members, as such, serve without com- 
pensation. 

The duties of the committee, as pro- 
vided by Congress, are to supervise and 
direct the scientific study of the prob- 
lems of flight, with a view to their prac- 
tical solution, and to determine the 
problems which should be experimentally 
attacked, and to discuss their solution 
and their application to practical ques- 
tions. 

UNITED STATES BOARD OF MEDIATION 
AND CONCILIATION 

The purpose for which the Board of 
Mediation and Conciliation was Estab- 
lished is to settle by mediation, con- 
ciliation, and arbitration controversies 
concerning wages, hours of labor, or 
conditions of employment that may arise 
between common carriers engaged in 
interstate transportation and their em- 
ployees engaged in train operation or 
train service. The board is an inde- 
pendent office, not connected with any 
department. 

GENERAL SUPPLY COMMITTEE 

It is the duty of the General Supply 
Committee to make an annual schedule 
of required miscellaneous supplies for 



the use of each of the executive depart- 
ments and other Government establish- 
ments in Washington, to standardize 
such supplies, eliminating all unneces- 
sary grades and varieties, and to solicit 
bids based upon formulas and specifica- 
tions. It is composed of one officer from 
each of the executive departments, 
designated by the head thereof. 

BOARD OF INDIAN COMMISSIONERS 

The Board of Indian Commissioners, 
created in 1SG!>, is a body of unpaid 
citizens, appointed by the President, who 
maintain an office in Washington, for 
the expenses of which and of travel 
Congress appropriates. The board is 
not a bureau or division of any depart- 
ment, but is purposely kept reasonably 
independent and afforded opportunities 
for investigation in order that it may 
freely express an intelligent and impar- 
tial opinion concerning Indian legis- 
lation and administration. Its legal 
duties are to visit and inspect branches 
of the Indian Service, to co-operate with 
the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 
the purchase and inspection of Indian 
supplies, and to report to the Secretary 
of the Interior, to whom and to the 
President the board acts in an advisory 
capacity, with respect to plans for 
civilizing or dealing with the Indians. 

THE INTERNATIONAL JOINT 
COMMISSION 

The International Joint Commission 
was created by treaty with Great Bri- 
tain, and has jurisdiction over all cases 
involving the use or obstruction or diver- 
sion of waters forming the international 
boundary or crossing the boundary be- 
tween the United States and Canada, 
and questions or matters of difference 
involving the rights, obligations, or in- 
terests of the United States or of the 
Dominion of Canada. 

COMMISSION FOR EQUITABLE DISTRI- 
BUTION OF WATERS OF THE 
RIO GRANDE 

This commission was authorized by 
the protocol of May 6, 1896, between 
Mexico and the United States, and their 
treaty of 1848, authorizing the appoint- 
ment of "commissioners" to settle "any 
disagreement" or "differences" between 
the two countries. It is commonly 
called "Commission for the Equitable 
Distribution of the Waters of the Rio 
Grande" — the boundary for about 1,300 
miles between these two nations. 

INTERNATIONAL (CANADIAN) BOUND- 
ARY COMMISSIONS 

The International (Canadian) Bound- 
ary Commissions were authorized by 
conventions or treaties between the 
United States and Great Britain, as 
follows : 



690 



ont rnrxTiiY AND its RESOURCES 



i. January 2U loon. For defining 
and marking the boundary between 
Alaska and British Columbia. Length, 
862 miles. 

2. April 21, L906. For defining :m<l 
marking the boundary between Alaska 
and Canada, along the 141st meridian. 
Length, 625 miles. 

::. For defining and marking Che 
boundary between the United States 
and Canada from the Atlantic Ocean 
to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception 
of the Greal Lakes and the St. Law 
rence River. Length, ::.ii4i miles. 

UNITED STATES BUBEATJ OF EFFICIENCY 

The duties (if the Bureau of Efiiciency 
are to establish and maintain a system 
of efficiency ratings for the executive 
departments in the District of Columbia : 
to investigate the Deeds of the several 
executive departments and independent 
establishments with respect to personnel, 
and to investigate duplication of statis- 
tical work and methods of business in 
the- various branches of the Government 
service. 

COURT OF CLAIMS OF THE UNITED 
STATES 

This court was established by act of 
Congress February 24. 1855. It has 
general jurisdiction of all "claims 
founded upon the Constitution of the 



United States or any law of Congress, 
except for pensions, or upon any regu 
lations of an executive department, or 
upon any contract, express or Implied, 
with the Government of the United 
states, or for damages, liquidated or 
unliquidated, In cases not sounding in 
tort, in respect of which claims the 
party would be entitled to redress 
against the United states, either in a 
court of law, equity, or admiralty, if the 

United States were suable, except claims 

growing oul of the late Civil War and 
commonly known as war claims," and 

certain rejected claims. The court is 
also vested with the jurisdiction of cer- 
tain Indian depredation claims. 

FEDEBAX WOK KM EN'S COMPENSATION 
COMMISSION 

The Federal Workmen's Compensation 
Commission is charged with the admin- 
istration of the Federal Workmen's Com- 
pensation Law. The law provides for 
the payment of 35 per cent of wages 
during widowhood to the widow of any 
workman employed by the Government 
and killed in the discharge of duty, and 
grants to a workman during period of 
total disability a monthly payment of 
two-thirds of his wages and a less 
amount in the case of partial disability. 
Provision is also made for payment to 
dependents, other than the widow, in 
case of death of a workman. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



THE PAN-AMERICAN UNION 



AT the entrance of Potomac 
Park, in Washington, stands 
one of the most beautiful 
structures ever erected in the "West- 
ern Hemisphere, namely, the build- 
ing of the Pan-American Union. 
The structure and grounds repre- 
sent an investment of $1,100,000, of 
which the American republics con- 
tributed $250,000 and Dr. Andrew 



Carnegie $S50,000. The architec- 
ture is an appropriate combination 
of the classical and Spanish renais- 
sance. A lofty vestibule opens into 
a typical Latin-American "patio," or 
courtyard, in the center of which is 
a beautiful fountain, while gorgeous 
parrots squawk around and trop- 
ical monkeys disport themselves in 
cages. Plants and flowers of the 




PAN-AMERICAN UNION, FRONT FACADE. WASHINGTON, D. C. 
Copyright by Munii & Co., Inc. 



592 



01 I; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



rarest flora of tropical America are 
found everywhere, while under the 
cornice are the coats-of-arms of the 
American republics and the names 
of men prominent in their history. 
The glass roof above is operated by 
electricity and can be closed al a 
moment's notice. In the rear of the 
patio is a wide corridor, now used 
for exhibits of Latin-American 
countries, and back of that is a 
large reading and reference room. 

The second tioor is approached by 
two grand stairways and contains 
a broad corridor, or foyer, in winch 
are suspended the national flags of 
the American republics. This foyer 
opens upon the "Hall of the Amer- 
icas," a large salon 100 feet in 
length and 70 feet in width. On 
this floor will also be found the 
Governing Hoard room and offices. 
In the rear of the main structure is 
a beautiful sunken garden, with a 



pool forming the central feature, 
and the building of the Pan-Amer- 
ican Annex forms the background. 
The tile effects are marvelous. 

It may well be asked what is the 
meaning of this magnificent build- 
ing? What i< its history, organiza- 
tion ami purpose? 

The Pan-American Union (for- 
merly known as the International 
Bureau of the American Republics) 
was established in the year 1890 in 
accordance with the resolutions 
passed at the first Pan-American 
conference, held at Washington in 
1889-90, and presided over by Mi-. 
Blaine, then Tinted State- Secre- 
tary of State. It was indorsed and 
continued by resolutions of the sec- 
ond conference at Mexico in 1901; 
the third, at Rio de Janeiro, in 190G. 
and the fourth, at Buenos Aire-, in 
1910. Its reorganization under the 
present administration dates practi- 




PATI0. PAN-AMERICAN UNION. WASHINGTON. D. C 



THE PAN-AMERICAN UNION 



50H 



rally from January, 1907, following 
the 'third conference, which was at- 
tended by Elihu Root, then Secre- 
tary of State. 

The Pan- American Union is the 
international organization and office 
maintained by the twenty-one Amer- 
ican republics, as follows : Argen- 
tina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colom- 
bia. Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican 
Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, 
Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, 
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, 
United States, Uruguay and Vene- 
zuela. It is devoted to the develop- 
ment and advancement of commerce, 
friendly intercourse and good under- 
standing among these countries. It 
is supported by quotas contributed 
by each country, based upon the 
population. Its affairs are admin- 
istered by a director general and 
assistant director, elected by and 
responsible to a Governing Board, 
which is composed of the Secretary 
of State of the United States and 
the diplomatic representatives in 
Washington of the other American 
governments. These two executive 
officers are assisted by a staff of 
international experts, statisticians, 
commercial specialists, editors, 



translators, compilers, librarians, 
clerks and stenographers. The Gov- 
erning Board holds regular meet- 
ings to consider the work of the 
Pan-American Union and to act 
upon the reports and recommenda- 
tions of the director general. This 
board in turn selects a supervising 
committee which considers matters 
not requiring the attention of the 
entire board. Appointments to the 
staff are made by the director gen- 
eral and the supervisory committee 
only after rigid competitive examina- 
tion of applicants. Although, being 
an international institution, the Pan- 
American Union is not under the 
rules of the United States Civil 
Service, its regulations covering ex- 
aminations and additions to its staff 
are even more strict than those of 
the Civil Service and usually re- 
quire an accurate and fluent knowl- 
edge of Spanish or Portuguese. 

Special pamphlets on the twenty 
Latin-American republics, with spe- 
cific information as to their form of 
government, industries, etc., have 
been issued and may be obtained by 
addressing the Director - General, 
Pan-American Union, Washington, 
D. C. 




THE "HALL OF THE AMERICAS" 



594 



OLR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



INDEX 



A 

Accidents, Automobile 228 

Accidents, Mining 195 

Accidents, Railway 156, 158 

Aerological Observatory 413 

Aeronautics 363 

Aeronautics, Military 290 

Aeronautics, National Advisory Com- 
mission 589 

Aeroplane, Mechanics of '■'•'■'■ 

Aeroplane Squadron, Rolling Stock 

for 375 

Aeroplanes, Bombing -">7'.( 

Aeroplanes, Fighting 378 

Aeroplanes, Scouting 376 

Agricultural Implements 216 

Agricultural Population 40 

Agriculture 37 

Agriculture, Department of 5 1 1 

Agriculture. Intensive 63 

Aircraft, Records 378 

Airships 367 

Alaska 327 

Alaskan Fisheries 71 

Aluminium 182 

"A merica" 353 

American Commerce 2.".1 

American Flag •"•47 

Animal Industry. Bureau id" 555 

Antarctic Regions l" 

A nticyclones 416 

Antimony 184 

Apples 50 

Architect, Supervising Treasury.... 503 

A relic KoniollS 10 

Area of the United states 19 

Area of United Slates and Foreign 

Countries 21 

Arlington Radio Station .':s."> 

Army Rill 2M' 

Army, Enlistments 284 

Army. Recruiting 286 

Army, Reserve 288 

Army. United States 281 

Arsenic 194 

Asbestos 194 

Asphall 195 

Assay Office, New York 309 

\si ronomy 123 

Astrophysical Observatory 580 

Attorney General 519 

Atmosphere, The in 

Aurora II s 

Automobile Industry 22:: 

Aviation, .Military 375 

R 

Balboa 4 

Ba l loon Soundl ag 112 

Balloons 364 

Barley II 



Barytes 188 

Battleships, Wireless on 389 

Beans 56 

Bell, Alexander Graham 20S 

Bicycles 217 

Bill Washing Machine 297 

Rills. Legislative 4.1s 

Biological Survey 556 

Bismuth 1S4 

Rlast Furnaces 215 

Blizzards 419 

Bombing Aeroplanes 379 

Borax 195 

Box Manufacture 80 

Brick 190 

Bridge, Hell Gate 151 

Bromine 194 

Buckwheat 45 

Buildings, Tall 21o 

Bullion, Melting and Refining of . . 309 

Butter 213 

Butter Churning 60 

C 

Cabinet, The 476 

('allies of the World 382 

Calcium Chloride 194 

Canning and Preserving 212 

Capitol at Washington 4.">r> 

Carriages 217 

Cars. Railway 147 

('attic Raising Regions ">!* 

Cattle Statistics CO 

Cement 190 

Census Bureau 564 

Census. First 482 

Cheese 213 

Chemicals 220 

chemistry. Bureau of 556 

Children's Bureau 574 

( Ihromic l ron ( >re 1S4 

Cities of the United states 29 

Civil Service Commission 586 

Claims. Court of 590 

Clay and Clay Products 190 

Climate ... 422 

Cloud Forms 410, 420 

Coal ISC, 

Coal Production, World's 183 

Coasl and Geodetic Survey 127 

Coasl Guard 139, 502 

Cocoa, World's Production of 55 

Cod 70 

Coffee, World's Production of 55 

Coins. Counting, l>y Machines 29."> 

Coins, Legal WeUhl "( 320 

Coins. Minting of 313 

Coke oven By Products 186 

College enrollment 255 

Columbus, Discoveries of 2 

Comets 4.'!7 



TNDE^ 



595 



Commerce, American 231 

Commercial Preparedness 245 

Comptroller of the Currencj 494 

C lissioner of Patents 540 

Construction and Repair, Bureau of 536 

Comptroller of the Treasury 498 

Commerce, Department of 561 

Consular Service 485 

Copper 180 

Copper, World's Production of 197 

Cordage 213 

Corn 42 

Cotton 47, 49 

Cotton Goods 213 

Cotton, World's Production of 48 

Court of Claims, U. S 590 

Crossties 80 

Crossties Purchased . . : 82 

Crosstk Wood for 82 

Culebra Cut 117 

Cultivation, World's Commercial. ... 39 

Cusk 70 

Cyclones 416 

D 

Daguerre 207 

Dairy Production. World's 64 

Declaration of Independence. . .486. 487 

Defense, Council of National 585 

Department of State 479 

Derelicts, Destroying 142 

Desertions, Navy 274 

Diamonds, World's Production of. . 197 

Diesel, Dr 209 

Dirigible Balloons 368 

Dutch Possessions 13 

Dye Plants 249 

Dyestuffs 220 

E 

Eads, James B 205 

Earthquakes 9 

Edison, Thomas A 198 

Education 255, 544 

Eiffel Tower Wireless 391 

Electric Cars 217 

Electrical Industry 217 

Ellis Island .....' 35, 501 

Education 255. 544 

Engraving and Printing. Bureau 

of 299, 499 

Enlisted Men. Navy 272 

Enlistments. Army 284 

Entomology, Bureau of 556 

Ericsson, John 205 

Ethnology. Bureau of 579 

Explosives 220 

Exports and Imports 232, 233 

Express Service 154 

F 

Families per Square Mile 24 

Farm Products 38. 62 

Federal Reserve Act 248 

Federal Reserve Board 587 

Federal Trade Commission . . . 248. 587 

Feldspar 195 

Felt Goods 213 

Fertilizers 220 

Fighting Aeroplanes 378 

Fine Arts Commission 588 

Fire Lookout 74 



Fins. Forest ...•,.•.. 86 

Fish Commission Far 69 

Fish We Fat 67 

Fisheries. Bureau of 72, 566 

Fisheries of the World 66 

Fisheries Products 68 

Flag. F.attle. of Lake Erie 358 

Flags, Trophy, of the F. s. Navy.. 357 

Flax 50 

Flour and Grist Mills 212 

Fluorspar 190 

Foghorn 13S 

Footwear '. 219 

Foreign Trade Problems 247 

Forest Fires 84 

Forest Regions, Natural 81 

Forests and Forestry 75. 555 

Forests, National 84 

Freight Service. Railway 152, 154 

French Possessions 13 

Fuels 186 

Fuller's Earth 195 

G 

Gaillard Cut 117 

Garnet 195 

Gas Industry 221 

Gas, Natural 188 

Gatling. R. J 206 

(Jems and Precious Stones 195 

General Staff Corps 507 

Geodetic Survey 127 

Geographical Discovery, Progress of .1, 11 

Geological Survey 119 

Geographic Board. F. S 588 

German Possessions. Former 13 

Gevsers 94 

Glacier Park 98 

Glass 221 

Gloves, Leather 219 

Glucose 222 

Goethals, Colonel 118 

Gold 177 

Gold Production, World's 179 

Good Roads and Bad 103 

Government Protection at Sea 135 

Government Surveys 119 

Granite Production 196 

Graphite 195 

Gravel 196 

Great Britain's Possessions 12 

Greenbacks, How Made 299 

Guam 344 

Gypsum 192 

H 

Haddock 67 

Hake 71 

Hail 421 

Halibut 67. 70 

Halos 420 

Hats 213 

Hawaiian islands .- 330 

Hay 46 

Health Service. F. S. Public 500 

Heavens Above 423 

Herring 70 

Hides and Skins 64 

Houses of Congress 455 

Hops 54 

Horses and Mules 60 

Hosiery 213 

House of Representatives 457 



596 



or It COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 



House of Congress 455 

Howe, Elias, .lr 202 

Humiditj 119 

1 1 j ill ogra phi< i >ffli • 129 

I 

Ice, Artificial 221 

Illiteracy 257 

Immigration 33, 34. 573 

Imports and Exports 232 

Inaugural Address, President Deliv- 
ering 404 

Inaugural Procession 450 

Indian Population 26 

Industrial Preparedness 245 

Insurance, War Kisk 504 

Intensive Agriculture 63 

Interior, Department of tin' 539 

Internal Revenue, Commission of. . 496 

Intel-state Commerce Commission.. 585 

Inventors. Hired 204 

Iron Ore and I rem 180 

Iron Ore. Chromic 184 

Iron. World's Production of 183 

Irrigation (See Reclamation) 

Isochronic Distances of the World.. 346 

.1 

Jupiter 43G 

Justice. Department of 51!) 

Jute 213 

K 

Knit floods 213 

Kodak. Autographic Patent 206 

L 

Labor, Department of 572 

Labor statistics. Bureau of 574 

Land and Sea. Profiles of 6. 7 

Land Office, General 544 

Languages of the World 25 

Laths 77 

Laundries 222 

Lead 182 

Lead. World's Production of 197 

Leather Industry 219 

Legislative Halls 455 

Library of Congress 261 

Libraries 260 

Lighthouses, Bureau of 135, 566 

Lightning 418 

Lightships I- 58 

Lime 11C ; 

Limestone Production 196 

Lincoln Highway 106 

Linoleum 214 

Live Stock 60 

Livingstone 5 

Lobsters J} 

Locks. Panama 1 10, 111, 113 

Locomotive. Powdered Coal Burning 151 

i locomotives «' 

Lumber Cut *£ 

Lumber Production < < 

M 

Machine Guns 201 

Magnesite 1!, .> 

Mail Cars 160 

Maine. Ensign of the 362 

Males and Females, Proportion of. 30 



Ma oga oese 184 

Manufactures 211 

Maps. Geologic 12o 

Marble Produ< tion 196 

Mars 430 

Maxim, Sir Hiram 208 

Meal Packing 61 

Median Point 22 

Medicine and Surgery, Bureau of. . 534 

Men of Progress 201 

Metallic Products, Miscellaneous... 184 

Metals. Scrap 186 

Meteors 437 

Miea 196 

Mileage, Railway, of the L. S 146 

Military Aviation 375 

Military Bureaus 511 

Military Establishment 282 

Militia, Peace Strength of 280, 289 

Milk. Condensed 213 

Milky Way 4.",o 

Mineral Industry of the L. S 177 

.Mineral Paints 196 

Mine.. Bureau of 191, 193, o44 

Mining Accidents 195 

Mint, Director of the 496 

Minting of Coins 313 

Mirage 421 

Money, Destruction of <»ld 292 

Money in Circulation 294 

Money. Dncle Sam's 293 

Monuments, National lot 

Moon 434, 438 

Motion Pictures in the Making. . . . 399 

Motorcycles 217 

Moving Picture Studio. First 409 

Moving Pictures Under Water 398 

Mules and Horses 60 

Mussel 72 

N 

National Museum 576 

National Parks. (>ur 95 

Nation. Heart of the 449 

Natural Gas 188 

Naturalization 574 

Nauen Wireless Station 393 

Naval Consulting Board 270 

Naval Officers 276 

Navigation. Bureau of 528, 567 

Navy. Cost of 269 

Navy, Department of the 526 

Navy, Enlisted Men 272 

Navy Expenditures 270 

Navy, The New 263 

Navy Increase Since 1903 203 

Navy. Secretary of the 526 

Naval < observatory 529 

Navy, Vessels of 266 

Nebulae 429 

Negro Population 26 

Newspaper Plant. Railway 157 

Nickel L84 

Non .Metallic Products 188 

Notes Issued and Redeemed 290 

O 

Oats 44 

Occupations 34, •".•"> 

Oilcloth 214 

oils. Vegetable, World's Production 

of . 187 



INDEX 



507 



Ore Handling. Mechanical 244 

Organization of Government 478 

Organs 222 

P 

Paints and Varnishes 220 

Paints. Mineral 196 

Panama Canal 109 

Panama Canal Zone 345 

Pan-American Union 591 

Paper 219 

Parcel Post 162 

Parks, National, Our 95 

Passenger Service, Railway .... 152. 154 

Patent. Early 200 

Patent Office 199. 540, 541 

Patents Increasing 202 

Peaches 54 

Pearv, Admiral 8 

Peas* 56 

Pension Office 543 

Petroleum 185, 187, 1S8 

Philippine Islands 335 

Phonographs 222 

Phosphate Rock 192 

Pianos 222 

Pipe, Cast Iron 217 

Planets 433 

Plant Industry 555 

Platinum IT 8 

Poles 80 

Pollock 70 

Ponce de Leon 3 

Population of the I T . S 19 

Population of the World 23 

Population. Center of 20, 22 

Porto Rico 341 

Portuguese Possessions 13 

Possessions. Our Non-Contiguous . . . 327 

Postmaster General 522 

Postage Stamps. Making 171 

Postal Savings 105 

Postal Service 161 

Post Office Department 522 

Post Office Expenditures 168 

Potash 192 

Potatoes 45 

Pottery Products 190 

Powder. Naval 278 

Power Development. Reclamation.. 91 
Precious Stones. World's Production 

of 195, 197 

Precipitation 421 

Preparedness. Commercial and In- 
dustrial 245 

President, Letter from the 172 

President, The 405 

Printing and Publishing 220 

Printing Office. Government 582 

Progress of Geographical Discovery. 11 

Pulp, Wood 219 

Purchases Made by U. S 240 

Q 

Quarry Industry 196 

Quicksilver 184 

R 

Races of IT. S 24 

Races of the World 27 

Radium 184 

Railroads of the U, S 145 



Railway Mail 160 

Railway Wireless 387 

Realm of the Air. The 411 

Reclamation Service 87 

Records. Aircraft 378 

Religions of the World 31 

Resources, National 173 

Revenue, Protection of 321 

Rice 50, 212 

Roads. Good and Bad 103 

Roads. Public, Office of 559 

Rolling Mills 215 

Roosevelt Dam 93 

Rosin 221 

Rubber Goods 221 

Rubber. World's Production of 48 

Rural Free Delivery 164 

Rye 45 

S 

Safety First Train 147 

Salt 194 

Samoan Islands 344 

Sand 196 

Sandstone Production 196 

Saturn 432, 437 

School Enrollment 255 

Scouting Aeroplanes 376 

Seal Fisheries 71 

Seal of the U. S 480 

Seaplanes 380 

Seasons, March of the 414 

Senate Chamber 456 

Sheep 65 

Sheep Raising Regions 59 

Sleet 421 

Shipbuilding 217 

Shipping Board 248 

Ship Registry Act 248 

Ship Wireless Stations 389 

Silk 214 

Silver 178 

Silver Production, World's 179 

Skins and Hides 64 

Skv Line, New York's 33 

Slate 196 

Slaughtering and Meat Packing... 212 

Small Arms. Military 289 

Smithsonian Institution 575 

Smudge Pots 58 

Smuggling 325 

Soap 221 

Soapstone 196 

South Pole Expedition 10 

Standards, Bureau of 565 

Stamps 162 

Stamps, Manufacture of 304 

Starch 222 

Star Maps 439. 445 

Stars 427 

"Star Spangled Banner" 351 

State, Department of 479 

Steamboat Inspection Service 569 

Steam Cars 217 

Steam Engineering, Bureau of 534 

Steel Works 215 

St. Elmo's Fire 418 

Stockholders. Railway 150 

Street Railways 158 

Suffrage. Woman's 32 

Sugar 58 

Sugar. World's Production of 57 

Sulphur 194 



598 



OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES 



Sulphuric Acid 1!>4 

Supreme Court 461 

Surf Boat 141 

Survey, Coast and G letic 127 

Survey, Geological 117 

Survey. Bydrographic 129 

Surveying, Romance of 125 

Surveys, Government 119 

Swine 65 

Sword Fish 70 

T 

Talc 196 

Talking Machines 222 

Tariff Commission 248 

Tea, World's Production of 55 

Teachers 258 

Telegraphic Communications of the 

World 382 

Telegraphy, Wireless 383 

Telephony Without Wires 392 

Ti lescopes 425 

Territory, Acquisition of 21 

Textiles 213 

Thunderstorms 417 

Tide Predictor 131 

Tile and Brick 190 

Tile Fish 72 

Timber Cut by Species 79 

Timber Regions of the World 78 

Timber Supply 75 

Tin 186 

Tin and Terne Plate 217 

Tin, World's Production of 197 

Titanium 186 

Tobacco 50, 52, 53 

Tobacco Culture 53 

Tobacco, World's Production of. ... 51 

Tomato Plants 54 

Tolls, Panama Canal 112 

Topographic Work 122 

Tornadoes 417 

Track. Railway 146 

Transportation 217 

Treasury 293 

Treasurer of the U. S 495 

Treasury. Department of the 493 

Treasury Receipts and Disburse- 
ments 298 

Tree, Oldest 95 

Triangulatiou Survey 126 



Tungsten 186 

Turpentine jjjj] 

Twine 213 



Uncle Sam's Autobiography 447 

United States 1'" ions 13 

Uranium 1S6 

Y 

Vanadium 186 

Vegetable <»ils. World's Production 

"f 187 

Vespucci. Amerigo 3 

Vocational Education 259 

Volcanoes or tie- World 9 

w 

Wa irons 217 

War College, Army 508 

War. Department of 506 

War Game, Army 510 

War. Secretary of 501', 

Washington Monument 451 

Washington, the Nation's City 447 

Water Power on National forests.. 85 

Weather Bureau 54s 

Westinghouse, George 207 

Wlcat 4:; 

Whistle. Uncle Sam's 44o' 

White Bouse 4<'.T 

WiUon. A. P. 203 

Wind Bits of the Earth 4 15 

Wine. World's Production of 54 

Wire 216 

Wireless. Railway 387 

Wireless Telegraphy 383 

Woman's Suffrage '■'■- 

Wood Preservation 82 

Woolen and Worsted Goods 215 

Woolworth Building l'54 

Workmen's Compensation, Federal. 59<i 

Wright Brothers 363 

Y 

Yards and Docks. Bureau of 531 

Vo-emite loo. 102 

Z 

Zeppelin Airships 378 

Zinc 182 




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